Badgers - I am starting to like them
- Green Fingers
- Mar 16
- 16 min read
What is it about badgers? I know I am supposed to love the animals and offer them protection and space. Yet somehow they appear to have an awkward streak, eat just about anything, and breed as if there is no tomorrow. Mind you, with current affairs being what they are, it is good to know that something, at least, is breeding.
The European badger (Meles meles) is a widespread mammal across Europe and plays a significant role in forest ecosystems as an ecosystem engineer. It is a nocturnal, social mammal belonging to the family Mustelidae and is recognised for its distinctive black-and-white facial markings. Badgers inhabit a variety of environments, including woodlands, grasslands, and agricultural areas[i]. Their extensive burrowing behaviour and social structures have profound impacts on ecosystem dynamics and biodiversity. Yet badgers are also a reservoir for Mycobacterium bovis, the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB). This has led to significant debate about badger management and conservation.
Ecological Role of Badgers
Ecosystem Engineering
Badgers are considered ecosystem engineers thanks to their burrowing activities, which create complex underground structures known as setts. You will know a sett when you see one, as it comprises many semicircular holes, generally scattered on a hillside near the edge of a wood. I have at least one on my land, so badgers for me are easy to spot. Setts also provide habitats for various other species, including invertebrates, reptiles, and small mammals. In addition, setts enhance local biodiversity.
Badgers do not do their doings in the sett, they have a go outside. Badger poo is easy to spot, once you have found it. It is black, glistening, and pointed at each end. Badgers are spotless and will have a group toilet somewhere near their sett, but not too close. Should you find a hole with many dark-coloured lumps of scat within it, the chances are you can thank badgers.
Environmentally, a badger exerts both positive and negative influences. Looking at these in more detail:
Positive Environmental Impacts
1. Ecosystem Engineering and Soil Health European badgers are known for their extensive burrowing behaviour and constructing elaborate underground sett systems[ii]. These burrows contribute to soil aeration, nutrient cycling, and water infiltration, improving soil health and fostering plant growth. The displacement of soil material during excavation also contributes to habitat heterogeneity and creates microhabitats for various organisms[iii].
2. Seed Dispersal and Vegetation Growth As omnivores, badgers consume a variety of fruits and berries, inadvertently dispersing seeds through their faeces. This process aids in plant propagation, particularly for species such as hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). I have plenty of both on my land. The dispersal of seeds through so-called endozoochory supports plant biodiversity and contributes to the regeneration of woodland and hedgerow ecosystems. Endozoochory is the system by which animals disperse seeds through the direct consumption of fruits. The seeds contained in the fruits pass through the digestive tract to subsequently be defaecated or regurgitated and dispersed[iv],[v]. In this context, terrestrial mammals such as rabbits[vi], while not forgetting badgers[vii] and even larger herbivores[viii], act as the dispersers of different fruit species. Frugivorous animals are, therefore, essential dispersers of plants[ix].
3. Regulation of Small Mammal and Invertebrate Populations Badgers play a role in controlling populations of rodents and invertebrates by preying on species such as voles, mice, and beetle larvae[x]. Their consumption of pest species can reduce crop damage in agricultural areas, offering a form of natural pest control that benefits farmers and enhances ecosystem stability. A badger’s top favourite is an earthworm[xi]. One badger can consume 200 earthworms each night. Astonishing. This is not the best for farmers, who generally love earthworms[xii]. This is because earthworms improve soil health and crop yields and are sometimes called “nature’s free soil farmers.”
4. Biodiversity Enhancement through Habitat Modification By modifying their environment, badgers create ecological niches for other species. Disused setts are often repurposed by foxes (Vulpes vulpes), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and even reptiles, increasing habitat availability for diverse faunal communities[xiii]. Furthermore, the presence of badger setts can influence vegetation structure, promoting habitat mosaics that support a range of organisms.
Negative Environmental Impacts
1. Crop Damage and Agricultural Conflict Badgers are known to feed on crops such as maize, wheat, and fruit, leading to conflicts with farmers[xiv]. Their digging behaviour, particularly when foraging for grubs, can damage pastureland, causing economic losses and contributing to negative perceptions of the species in agricultural communities.
2. Predation on Ground-Nesting Birds and Amphibians While badgers primarily consume invertebrates and plant material, they occasionally prey on ground-nesting birds, their eggs, and amphibians[xv]. This predation pressure contributes to declines in vulnerable populations, particularly in areas where habitat loss has already placed stress on these species.
3. Disease Transmission One of the most controversial aspects of badger ecology is the animal’s role in the transmission of bTB. Badgers can act as reservoirs for the disease, which affects cattle and has significant economic consequences for livestock industries. Disease management strategies, including culling and vaccination programs, have been widely debated in the context of balancing conservation priorities with agricultural interests[xvi].
4. Competition with Other Mammalian Species As opportunistic omnivores, badgers compete with other carnivorous and omnivorous mammals for food resources. In some regions, their presence has been linked to declines in hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) populations because of predation and competition for invertebrate prey[xvii]. Badgers in, hedgehogs out.
Badgers and Bovine Tuberculosis
Transmission Dynamics
There is much debate and research into badgers and bTB. The jury is still out as to whether badgers are as bad as some say. It is said that Scotland has badgers but little bTB, while the Isle of Man has bTB but no badgers. How true that is, I cannot say. What is more, bTB can be found in many different animals - deer, foxes, mice, cats, and dogs. In the UK, over 230,000 badgers have been culled out of a pre-cull population estimated to be 485,000. A four-year-long trial of badger culling that was conducted in the UK’s Cumbria from 2018 to 2021 - I live and work in Cumbria - showed that removing badgers had no significant contribution to controlling bTB in cattle[xviii].
Researchers have found that the strain of organism responsible for a bTB outbreak came from infected cattle imported from Ireland. These cattle were imported six years before the same strain appeared in badgers[xix], meaning it was highly likely that cattle initially transmitted bTB to the surrounding wildlife, including badgers. On this basis, I still need persuading that culling badgers is the right thing to do. This said, the animals can certainly contract bTB and, through direct or indirect contact, transmit the pathogen to cattle. Transmission routes include contamination of pasture with urine, faeces, or sputum containing the bacteria. Research indicates that while badgers are a source of infection, the majority of bTB transmission occurs between cattle.
A study analysing data from the Randomised Badger Culling Trial (RBCT) found that badger culling had a modest effect on reducing bTB incidence in cattle, suggesting that cattle-to-cattle transmission indeed plays a more substantial role in disease dynamics[xx]. Furthermore, the perturbation effect, where culling disrupts badger social structures leading to increased movement and potential spread of the disease[xxi], complicates the effectiveness of culling as a control measure.
Badger vaccination
While culling has been controversial, badger vaccination programmes have shown promise. A study conducted in the UK’s Cornwall, reported a significant decrease in bTB among vaccinated badger populations, with the percentage of badgers testing positive for bTB falling from 16% to zero over four years[xxii]. This suggests that vaccination could be a viable, non-lethal method for controlling bTB in wildlife reservoirs. However, challenges such as the logistics of vaccine delivery and the need for repeated administration must be addressed. Integrating badger vaccination with improved cattle testing, movement controls, and biosecurity measures may offer a more holistic approach to bTB management[xxiii].
Legal and Conservation Status
Badgers are protected under various national and international laws. In the UK, the Protection of Badgers Act 1992 makes it illegal to harm or disturb badgers or their setts[xxiv]. People can also be prosecuted for having a dead badger, which is perhaps why I see so many in roadside gutters. They have been killed somewhere else, by some unidentified individual, and left where it is impossible to tell who did what to what. Balancing the conservation of badgers with the need to control bTB in cattle remains a complex policy issue requiring multidisciplinary collaboration.
Scratching
If you want to know about scratching, ask a badger. As best I can tell, the animals scratch continually. Mind you, they do need to sharpen their claws. The animals scratch in their setts, they scratch the earth and kick some backwards as they emerge from the sett, they scratch a nearby tree - badgers adore hawthorns for this - they scratch their best friend and finally scratch themselves. Scratching, if you are a badger, is a lifelong and continuous activity. It is said that scratching is primarily for self-grooming and territorial marking purposes[xxv].
Self-grooming in badgers is essential for maintaining fur condition and parasite control. The animals typically groom themselves while sitting or lying down, focusing on areas such as the stomach, legs, tail, and face. Attempts are also made to groom parts of the rump, back, and shoulders, although these areas are less accessible. Mutual grooming, or allogrooming, is also observed among badgers, serving to strengthen social bonds within groups[xxvi].
Scent-marking (musking)
Scratching is closely linked to badger scent-marking activities, vital for communication and territory delineation. Scent-marking is also known as musking[xxvii]. Badgers possess a subcaudal gland (SCG) located near the base of the tail and paired scent glands located just inside the anus. The glands secrete a distinctive scent. The oily secretions from the glands are a complex mixture of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including short and medium-chain fatty acids[xxviii]. These compounds exhibit individual-specific profiles, conveying information about the badger's identity, health, and reproductive status. For example, breeding individuals and adults tend to scent-mark more frequently than non-breeding or younger badgers. The glands open to a horizontal slit between the tail base and anus, facilitating the deposition of scent marks. Badgers use these glands to mark objects within their territory and engage in allomarking - marking other members of their social group[xxix]. The composition of the secretions varies seasonally and among individuals, suggesting a role in dynamic social communication[xxx].
Scent-marking peaks during the mating season (winter) and cub-rearing season (spring), aligning with increased social interaction and reproductive activity. Males exhibit more frequent scent-marking than females, particularly during the mating season. Breeding individuals of both sexes mark more frequently than non-breeding ones, indicating a link between reproductive status and marking behaviour. Secretions are essential when it comes to mate selection and social interactions[xxxi].
Badger society
The badger exhibits a complex social structure that varies across its range, influenced by environmental factors, resource distribution, and population density[xxxii].
Social Organisation and Group Structure
Badgers are notable among mustelids for their sociability, typically forming groups of about six adults, although larger associations have been documented. Group size is influenced by habitat composition and resource availability, with optimal conditions supporting smaller territories and larger groups. Territories are marked by communal latrines and well-worn paths, primarily maintained by males, especially during the mating season[xxxiii]. Genetic studies have revealed that multiple adults of either gender may breed within a group, and extra-territorial movements occur within clusters of territories. This behaviour contributes to genetic diversity and reduces inbreeding within populations[xxxiv].
Territoriality and Movement Patterns
Badgers exhibit strong territorial behaviour, with contiguous territories often remaining stable over many years. However, individuals frequently make extra-territorial excursions (ETEs) throughout the year, with males undertaking longer and more frequent ETEs than females, particularly between January and March, and in autumn. These excursions are not solely for mating purposes but may also serve to monitor neighbouring groups and resource availability[xxxv]. Movement patterns are also influenced by population density. Male-biased movement has been observed in high-density populations, suggesting that males may disperse to reduce competition and avoid inbreeding[xxxvi].
Environmental Influences on Social Spacing
Environmental factors, such as habitat type and resource distribution, significantly shape badger social spacing. Studies across Europe have shown that variations in food availability and habitat structure can lead to differences in territory size and group composition. For instance, badgers may form larger groups with smaller territories in areas with abundant resources, whereas in resource-scarce regions, they may adopt a more solitary lifestyle with larger territories.
Seasonal Variation in Social Behaviour
Badger social interactions exhibit seasonal variation, with contact frequency and duration peaking during certain times of the year. In high-density populations, contacts are more frequent during daylight hours in summer when badgers rest in communal setts, while in winter, contact frequency remains consistent throughout the 24-hour period. These patterns have implications for disease transmission dynamics, particularly bTB.
Sett Architecture and Design
Badger setts can sometimes be difficult to find, but once you have seen one, there is no mistaking it. They are often found on gently sloped hillsides and at the edge of woodland. They comprise multiple holes in a smallish area. Some holes are clearly being used and contain upturned soil. Other holes lie unused, perhaps relics of history.
A sett comprises a complex network of tunnels and chambers, reflecting the species' social structure and environmental adaptations. Key characteristics include:
Entrances and Tunnels
Setts typically feature multiple entrances, with some large setts having up to 40 openings. Tunnels are generally about 30cm wide and 25cm high, accommodating a badger's stocky build. These passageways can extend over 100 metres in length, with some extensive setts covering areas over 2000 square metres[xxxvii].
Chambers
Within the sett, larger chambers are used for sleeping and rearing young. These nesting chambers are lined with dry bedding materials such as grass, straw, leaves, or bracken, which badgers regularly replace to maintain hygiene[xxxviii].
Location Preferences
Badgers often construct setts on well-drained, sloping ground, frequently in or immediately beside woodlands or hedgerows. The choice of location is influenced by factors such as soil type, drainage, and available food sources[xxxix].
Types of Sett
Badger social groups, known as clans, use different types of sett within their territories:
Main Setts
These are the primary residences, occupied year-round and used for breeding. Main setts are large and complex, with numerous entrances and extensive tunnel systems[xl].
Outlier Setts
Smaller and less frequently used, outlier setts may serve as temporary shelters or be used when food resources are abundant nearby. They typically have fewer entrances and simpler structures.
Sett Dynamics and Maintenance
Badgers exhibit continuous maintenance behaviour to ensure a sett's suitability. These activities include:
Excavation and Expansion: Badgers are active diggers, continually modifying their setts by creating new tunnels and chambers while abandoning others. This dynamic process reflects their adaptability to environmental changes and social needs[xli].
Bedding Management: Badgers regularly collect fresh bedding materials, transporting them into the sett to line nesting chambers. This behaviour is crucial for parasite control and thermal insulation.
Hygiene Practices: Badgers maintain cleanliness by defaecating in designated latrines away from the sett and removing soiled bedding. Such practices reduce the risk of disease and parasite infestations within the sett.
Social Interactions within the Sett
The sett functions as the focal point for badger social life. Activities include:
Group Living: Badgers live in family groups that can include multiple generations. While they share a common sett, individual badgers may forage alone and exhibit varying degrees of social cooperation.
Reproductive Activities: Breeding occurs within the sett, with cubs born and reared in the nesting chambers. The communal living arrangement encourages alloparental care, where non-breeding individuals assist in rearing the young, although the extent of such behaviour varies[xlii].
Genders
Being a badger is a team effort. Both males and females do the same things but there is also an allocation of labour.
Unlike certain animals where males hunt and females tend the home, badger behaviour is more communal and cooperative within their clans. Both males and females contribute to sett maintenance, and both forage for food. However, females are more involved in cub care and keeping the sett clean, while males take on more territorial roles and patrol the boundaries.
Key gender differences include:
1. Territoriality & Range
Males (Boars): More territorial and roam further from the sett. They patrol boundaries, scent-mark, and defend the territory against rival males.
Females (Sows): Tend to stay closer to the sett, particularly during breeding and when rearing cubs.
2. Sett Maintenance
Both genders contribute to sett cleaning and maintenance, but females often spend more time cleaning out bedding (such as dry leaves and grass). Males also help with sett enlargement but are less involved in daily tidying.
3. Foraging & Hunting
Both males and females forage for food, mainly earthworms, insects, fruits, and small mammals.
Males tend to travel further in search of food, especially in summer, while females, especially those with cubs, stay closer to the sett.
Unlike foxes or big cats, badgers do not have a male-dominated hunting role.
4. Social Hierarchy & Aggression
Males are more aggressive, especially during the mating season, and will fight other males for access to females.
Females establish their own hierarchy but are usually less aggressive than males unless protecting cubs.
5. Raising Cubs
Female badgers are primarily responsible for raising and nursing cubs.
Males may be present in the sett but do not play an active role in rearing young.
Conclusion
There is no doubting badgers are sophisticated creatures that I am slowly getting to know. Generally, they stay out of sight and avoid humans like the plague. They are protected by UK law at least, so to do anything to a badger, or its sett, is totally prohibited. Badgers have come more to light in recent years thanks to bTB, yet it appears evident that badgers are being blamed for a problem that is not so clear. There are many explanations for bTB in a location, with badgers being but one.
I had best start being nice to badgers.
***
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#Badgers #WildlifeConservation #EcosystemEngineers #NatureLovers #UKWildlife #BadgerSetts #AnimalBehaviour #Biodiversity #HabitatProtection #BadgerFacts #EnvironmentalImpact #WildlifeBiology #ConservationMatters #Ecology #BovineTB #BadgerCulling #NaturalPestControl #ForestEcosystem #WildlifeResearch #EndangeredSpecies
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