Week 8
Once again this is a long one, albeit shorter than others I have written, so I have not divided it into two portions. However, you will need somewhere quiet and thoughtful to read it and do feel free to let me know what you think once you are done. Our world needs everyone to act, and that includes both you and me. Climate change and the future of mankind is no longer an observer occupation. With that, here goes...
Unexpected radiation
I glanced at the Geiger counter, which I had placed deep within a crevice in a nearby rock. I could hear the crazy clicking and read 80 counts per minute on the Geiger’s screen.
Radiation. Hell! It was the last thing I was expecting on the very top of King’s How, with the scenic majesty of Derwent Water laid out below me, two kilometres to my north. To my left was the 451-metre mountain of Cat Bells[i], to my front the distant market town of Keswick[ii] with the 931-metre Skiddaw peak[iii] towering over it, while beside me was the creviced rock and the increasingly crazy clicking.
Derwent Water
Derwent Water when seen from any angle is a remarkable place, even if I still have no clue how to spell its name. To some it is Derwent Water - that is my selection - while to others it is Derwentwater, with just the one word.
The name, whatever the spelling, describes the third largest lake in the Lake District. Around it runs a magnificent 18-kilometre (10 miles) footpath[iv], the Derwentwater Walk, where it is easy to cheat and take a launch[v], thereby cutting off sections without anyone noticing. Derwent Water was popular with Beatrix Potter and several of her books were based on the lake’s surroundings. Mrs Tiggy-Winkle, the hedgehog laundress, for example, lived behind a small wooden door on the mountain of Cat Bells. No wonder Derwent Water is called the “Queen of the Lakes”[vi].
The name “Derwent” comes from the River Derwent, which in ancient Welsh means “river with oak trees[vii].” There are plenty of oak trees each side of the River Derwent. The river flows into Derwent Water, from there to Bassenthwaite in a northerly direction, and onwards to the Irish Sea. Sadly, the River Derwent is not what it was, as for the past three years it has at times run dry, evidence of climate change in action[viii].
The geology of Derwent Water, and nearby Keswick, is typical of so much of the Lake District. It is a combination of volcanic activity 460-480 million years ago and subsequent glacial activity more recently.
Even 480 million years is young by Earth standards, as our planet is at least 4.6 billion years old. The subsequent glacial activity 20,000 years ago would have made the area of Derwent Water look very different to how it appears today, as there were major glaciers flowing up the Borrowdale valley towards Keswick[ix].
King’s How – a royal summit
The low 392-metre peak of King’s How where I was sat forms part of Grange Fell, which long ago became my favourite part of Borrowdale, and far from any madding crowd. I have lost count of the number of times I have climbed it. It took me at least four attempts to find its memorial plaque to King Edward VII, placed post-mortem near the summit. When King Edward VII died in 1910, his sister Princess Louise, President of the National Trust, purchased Grange Fell in Borrowdale, and through the National Trust gifted it to the nation in memory of her brother.
The plaque reads:
“In Loving Memory of King Edward VII, Grange Fell is dedicated by his sister Louise as a sanctuary of rest and peace. Here may all beings gather strength, find in scenes of beautiful nature a cause for gratitude and love to God, giving them courage and vigour to carry on his will.”
Once spotless and untarnished, the plaque is now faded and cracked, covered with lichen, and difficult to find. Yet it is a record of the times brother and sister would have climbed to that spot and taken in the glorious view of Derwent Water. I, too, had that same magnificent vista but I also had additional crazy clicking. The royals would not have had that, as it was only in 1908 that Geiger introduced the first successful detector of individual alpha particles and other ionising radiation. It was another decade, by 1928, that the Geiger-Müller counter appeared[x], long after King Edward VII’s last visit to Grange Fell.
Yet the crazy clicking was an indication of something I had long suspected. The stone of King’s How, indeed the wider Lake District, was impure. It was likely to contain radon, which both affected and was affected by...you guessed it...climate change.
Hidden dangers of radon
Radon? This is a colourless, odourless, dangerous radioactive gas produced from the natural decay of uranium and is typically released from bedrock rich in uranium and radium[xi]. It passes from the rock through the soil, where it is released in diluted amounts into the outdoor air, although it is sometimes also released indoors. That includes houses, offices, indeed any building anywhere. Radon is a significant health hazard because of its radioactive properties, with long-term exposure linked to an increased risk of lung cancer.
Breathing in radon is the second largest cause of lung cancer in the UK, as identified by the UK’s Health and Safety Executive, and results in over 1000 fatal cancers each year[xii] in the UK, and up to 15,000 such deaths each year in the USA. Only smoking causes more lung cancer deaths[xiii]. The Lake District is underlain by granite and other uranium-rich rocks, conditions that can lead to elevated radon levels[xiv] in both indoor and outdoor environments. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that when released outdoors, radon disperses rapidly and is usually not a health issue[xv]. However, when it is released through the foundation of homes, schools, workplaces, and other building structures, it can become trapped, and pose significant health concerns.
Not all radiation is dangerous to humans. For example, the non-ionising waves used for car radios and kitchen microwaves rely on radiation to transmit sound or heat up foods and liquids. However, radon is an ionising wave, classified by the World Health Organization and other expert agencies as a carcinogen[xvi]. When released, radon particulate matter can become trapped within structures, steadily accumulate, and cause dangerous levels of exposure. Hence the crazy clicking from my crevice.
Our changing climate is playing its part, especially with the Lake District’s observed trends towards warmer and wetter conditions[xvii]. These changes influence radon levels indirectly through alterations in soil moisture and temperature[xviii], which affect radon's entry into the atmosphere and buildings. Furthermore, with extra rain the spaces in the soil fill up with water and the radon is displaced. Although radon is itself a radioactive gas with limited direct greenhouse effects, its decay products contribute to atmospheric chemistry in ways that influence climate. Radon decay products[xix] participate in atmospheric aerosol formation, affect cloud condensation nuclei[xx], cloud formation processes, and have been found in rainwater[xxi].
Warmer temperatures might also influence the distribution of radon by altering atmospheric pressure patterns and ventilation rates in buildings[xxii]. As atmospheric pressure declines with bad weather, so radon is dragged into the atmosphere from its subterranean location. In addition, warmer weather means greater use of air-conditioning, generally with closed windows, so that the radon concentration rises. The home acts like a vacuum, drawing in air and any radon gas that may be present in the surrounding soil. This is known as the stack effect, or chimney effect, when warm air rises in a house and cold air enters to replace it[xxiii]. The effect can be especially pronounced when humidity is high, such as after rainfall[xxiv].
Every year, mankind receives more radiation from radon than from all other natural or man-made sources combined. Indeed, over time, the accumulated radiation exposure of homeowners can exceed the exposure experienced by uranium miners. Thanks to the slow decay of the heavier radioactive metals such as uranium and thorium, which have a half-life of billions of years, the Earth is destined to produce a never-ending supply of radon gas[xxv]. There is no escaping it, despite radon’s half-life being a paltry 3.8 days[xxvi].
Speedily, as if I had been scalded, I retrieved the noisy Geiger counter from its rocky crevice. The moment the counter was in my hand, the crazy clicking stopped. Radon was all around and my Geiger had been frightening me.
Permafrost and climate change
Permafrost comes into the equation, not so much these days in the United Kingdom, but certainly where the weather is colder. It has been likened to a slumbering giant, as it holds twice as much CO2 as the atmosphere and 200 times as much methane. Permafrost, by definition, is ground that is frozen for more than two years in a row and tends to occur where the mean annual temperature is below freezing. Most is found in areas around the Arctic, including Siberia, Canada, Alaska, and Greenland. It can also be found in high altitude areas such as the Tibetan plateau, and in parts of Antarctica that are not covered by glaciers. Permafrost can also be found at the bottom of the sea around the Arctic. This subsea permafrost originally formed on land, before ending up underwater following the sea level rise after the last Ice Age. The sea level rise in those days was huge, roughly 120 metres, with a melt-back that lasted from 19,000 to 6000 years ago[xxvii]. The UK no longer has any permafrost, but there was a time during the last glacial period when it did so[xxviii].
The ground above permafrost freezes and thaws every year as the seasons change and is called the active layer. This can be anywhere between a few centimetres up to several metres thick depending on temperature, snow, and the type of soil. Permafrost thawing is an important impact of climate change and in recent decades has been seen right around the world. Global warming is thus causing a significant loss of permafrost volume. Research has shown that the volume of permafrost in the upper two metres of the ground decreases by 10-40% with every 1°C rise in surface air temperature[xxix].
As the permafrost thaws, so items in the soil can leak out, not only the huge mass of carbon dioxide it contains, but also radon. Outdoors, this radon escapes into the air and is diluted, thereby being less of a threat, but it can also appear in buildings. For buildings on piles there is no increase in radon. However, for buildings with cellars, or ground floors constructed on radon-containing stone, the radon increases by more than 100-fold. This implies that a significant number of people who live in sub-Arctic lands - Alaska, Canada, Iceland, and many others[xxx] - are exposed to dangerous radon levels because of climate change[xxxi], and all the effects on human health that implies.
Bowder Stone – a geological marvel
On the way up to my viewpoint of King’s How, I had passed the 2000-ton Bowder Stone[xxxii]. In the early 1800s this enormous boulder was billed as a must-see for visitors. It was established as a tourist attraction by the eccentric and wealthy Joseph Pocklington in 1798. By then, he had already built a house on Derwent Island, diverted Barrow Cascade to make it more impressive, and created a tradition of armed invasions of his island as part of the Derwent Water Regatta. For the Bowder Stone, he built a wooden ladder so that tourists could stand on the stone’s summit, constructed a mock hermitage nearby, erected a druidical standing stone and drilled a hole through its base so that lovers could touch hands. He also built a cottage where he installed an elderly woman whose duty was to ‘lend the place quaint atmosphere’. This tradition continued throughout the 19th century. It is still possible to climb to the top of the Bowder Stone via a ladder today[xxxiii], although the ladder is now made of metal, not wood, and there is little space at the top for more than one person. The Bowder Stone is also much visited by boulderers, who have described at least 76 classic hardcore routes to climb it[xxxiv].
Although the Bowder Stone offers little information about how climate may be changing currently, it certainly indicates how it might have changed in the past. There are many theories as to how the stone has appeared in its present position. Some are fanciful, for example, it materialised because of a fight between giants, as they threw huge rocks at one another[xxxv]. More likely, the stone is a glacial erratic, deposited by glacial action during the last Ice Age. It is possible to see many smaller erratics all around Derwent Water. The Bowder Stone thus serves as an indicator of past climatic conditions, highlighting that climate really does change, and is not a feature of human imagination, much as many climate-deniers might otherwise wish. Derwent Water was once a very icy place.
And radon? I suspect it is there, too. As I walked under the Bowder Stone on my way to King’s How, my Geiger went crazy at one particular spot. I picked up pace the moment I heard the crazy clicking and never looked back.
Illegal immigration in the Lake Dsitrict
In addition to the magnificent view stretching out before me from the summit of King’s How, and the high radon levels exacerbated by climate change, 15 metres to my right I could see the fading embers of a fire, yet no sign of wild camping. Although wild camping has become increasingly popular in the Lake District[xxxvi], I could see no evidence of tent or groundsheet, just linear forms of compressed grass, and footprints created by trainers. I estimated the traces had been left by three individuals. Tracking happens to be my thing. The threesome had likely slept out under soggy stars. Immediately I thought of illegal immigrants, which perhaps I should not have done, but it was hard to explain the findings in any other way.
Sadly, illegal immigration seems alive and well in the Lake District, much as one hears little about it. It is now many years since the 2004 disaster in Morecambe Bay, 50 kilometres (31 miles) to my south, when a speedy incoming tide drowned at least 21 undocumented Chinese cocklers. The workers had been trafficked via containers into Liverpool and were hired out through local criminal agents of international Chinese triads[xxxvii]. Certainly, in the Lake District, there have been several occasions when I have seen out-of-place people in odd locations. I remember one early morning, high up near Langdale’s Stickle Tarn, where I witnessed three short-haired men and a teenage boy descending the mountain. Each was dressed in urban clothing, each was carrying a suitcase, none appeared local, and none responded to my hearty, “Good morning!” They did not even blink. I thought then, as I thought now, what is it that drives people to leave their homeland and creep illegally into a country further north?
I believe the core issue is climate, although the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, developed to manage European refugees from World War II, does not protect those who are fleeing from the weather. Because of this, there is an increasing body of opinion that proposes the development of a new category of migrant, the climate refugee[xxxviii].
Estimates of numbers are difficult, but the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in 2022 estimated the number of climate refugees to be 31.8 million. These displacements were largely the result of floods (19.2 million), storms (10 million), and droughts (2.2 million), with wildfires, landslides, and extreme temperatures forming the remainder. This figure varies significantly each year. For example, from 2008 to 2021 it fluctuated between 13.9 and 38.3 million.
In this respect, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) noted:
“It is an established fact that human-induced greenhouse gas emissions have led to an increased frequency and/or intensity of some weather and climate extremes since pre-industrial time […] The occurrence of extreme events unprecedented in the observed record will rise with increasing global warming, even at 1.5°C of global warming[xxxix].”
Climate change can certainly lead to forcible displacements because of these extreme weather events[xl]. Such displacements are normally rapid and frequently unexpected.
Climate change can also lead to slow-onset impacts, which were well summarised in 2022 by the International Organization for Migration (IOM)[xli]:
“Ecosystems are increasingly endangered by slow-onset environmental events and processes. For instance, heat waves might lead to loss of agricultural land and decrease in productivity, while sea-level rise and saltwater intrusion might threaten freshwater resources. [...] Threats to human security might in turn drive people to migrate in search of alternative income and ways to meet their basic needs.”
With climate change the figures are set to rise enormously. The Institute for Economics and Peace (IEC) suggested that by 2050, 141 countries will have been exposed to at least one ecological threat and 1.2 billion people will have been displaced globally[xlii]. What this means for someone sat atop King’s How in the UK’s Lake District is that illegal immigration is real and ongoing, is already related to changing climate, and is likely to become worse.
Drumlins of Derwent Water
From my vantage point, I could see that Derwent Water contained several islands. Whenever I count the islands, I appear to end up with a different number, but I will here work on there being at least 11. The islands appear to be like inverted spoons and are drumlins[xliii]. The long axis of a drumlin indicates the trend of an ice flow. A drumlin typically has one very steep side (stoss end) and one more gradually sloping side (lee side), which is inclined in the direction that the glacier moved. The orientation of the Derwent drumlins allows one to conclude the glaciers flowed in a northerly direction.
Drumlins often occur in groups, as they have in Derwent Water, and were deposited and sculpted at the base of moving glaciers. A drumlin is typically formed of till or clay and is soft in geological terms. If the rock is more resistant and better withstands glacial erosion, so it remains as a topographic high spot. Glacial till is then deposited downstream of the harder rock feature, which is then known as a crag and tail.
In addition to the drumlins, there is also one floating island that occasionally appears towards the end of summer, floating on a cushion of methane gas[xliv]. This may explain my difficulty in accurately counting the number of islands. Meanwhile, methane is worrisome and makes me think.
Methane – an invisible climate threat
Anthropogenic transformation of lakes increases the emission of both methane and nitrous oxide[xlv], and there is suspicion this may partly be the cause for the changes in Derwent Water. The lake’s water is certainly impure. It contains both blue-green algae[xlvi] - as do many other watercourses in the Lake District - and New Zealand pygmy weed[xlvii] (Crassula helmsii). The latter has already crowded out nine native species from Derwent Water[xlviii] and there is no sign of it stopping.
Also, and this may be nothing other than suspicion, as I walked alongside the River Derwent near the village of Grange on my way to the Bowder Stone and onwards to King’s How, there was something smelly in the air. There had been heavy rainfall for several days before, floodwaters were receding, and I sensed, just sensed, that I was smelling the odour of faeces. I do hope I was wrong. The smell certainly matched the extensive froth on the water’s surface, which may have been created by rotting vegetation higher upriver or may have had a more sinister origin. Pure methane (CH4) is odourless but when mixed with hydrogen sulphide, which can sometimes be done artificially, or thanks to Nature, it is possible to detect methane. On average, a person defecates about 500g a day which can be converted to 50 litres of methane[xlix] and there are plenty of people each side of the River Derwent.
Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, and the second-largest contributor to climate warming after carbon dioxide (CO2). One molecule of methane traps more heat than one molecule of CO2, while methane has a relatively short atmospheric lifespan of 7-12 years. CO2 persists for several centuries. Methane comes from both natural sources and human activities, the latter being responsible for 60% of today’s methane emissions. The largest sources of methane are agriculture, fossil fuels, and decomposition of landfill waste, not just excreta. The remaining 40% of methane emissions arise from natural processes, with wetlands being the largest natural source.
Frighteningly perhaps, the concentration of methane in the atmosphere has more than doubled over the past 200 years. Scientists estimate that this increase is responsible for up to 30% of climate warming since 1750, when the Industrial Revolution began[l]. Methane levels are rising, which may explain why the floating island on Derwent Water appears from time to time.
Water quality
Several factors contribute to the water quality of Derwent Water, which is not the best and has only moderate ecological status[li], however scenic it looks from above. These factors include:
1. Agricultural Runoff: The Lake District's agricultural practices contribute to nutrient runoff, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, which have a profound effect on Derwent Water’s ecosystem. Although it is the broadest and shallowest of the major Cumbrian lakes, its aquatic flora are indicative of a low level, nutrient poor (oligotrophic/mesotrophic) watercourse[lii].
2. Atmospheric Deposition: Rainfall - there is a lot of that - introduces pollutants from local and distant sources, impacting water chemistry.
3. Sewage and Wastewater Discharge: Although strictly regulated, effluent from surrounding communities affect nutrient concentrations in the lake. There are at least ten sewage treatment plants on the shores of Derwent Water and plenty more that outflow into adjacent watercourses[liii].
4. Climate Change: Changes in precipitation patterns, temperature, and extreme weather events can influence water quality and ecosystem health.
It is no surprise that Derwent Water has its problems as there is so much going on. However wonderful its appearance, that beauty is only wafer thin. Beneath that surface there is much that needs to improve. Sadly, with climate change this is just the beginning. There is plenty more to follow that I have no desire to see.
***
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#EnvironmentalAwareness #ClimateChange #RadonRisk #LakeDistrict #DerwentWater #NatureConservation #GlobalWarmingEffects #RadiationSafety #OutdoorAdventures #GeigerCounterDiscoveries #HistoricalLandmarks #KingEdwardVII #PermafrostThaw #MethaneEmissions #WaterPollution #SustainableTourism #IllegalImmigration #ClimateRefugees #EcoSystemThreats #RenewableEnergy
References
[i] Walk My World. Catbells: everything you need to know about this beautiful Lake District fell. 7 August 2023. See https://www.walkmyworld.com/posts/catbells-walk-lake-district. Accessed 15 February 2024.
[ii] Wikipedia. Keswick, Cumbria. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keswick,_Cumbria. Accessed 15 February 2024.
[iii] Wikipedia. Skiddaw. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiddaw. Accessed 15 February 2024.
[iv] Lake District National Park. Explore Derwentwater, Keswick and Borrowdale.
See https://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/visiting/places-to-go/explore-derwent-water-and-keswick#:~:text=The%20walk%20around%20Derwentwater%20is,10%20mile%20%2F%2018%20km%20route. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[v] Keswick Launch Co. The best way to explore Derwentwater. See https://keswick-launch.co.uk. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[vi] National Trust. Things to see at Derwent Water and Keswick. See https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/visit/lake-district/borrowdale-and-derwent-water/things-to-see-at-derwent-water-and-keswick. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[vii] Wikipedia. Derwentwater. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derwentwater. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[viii] The Keswick Reminder. Bone dry: Lake District river in England’s wettest place. 12 June 2023. See https://keswickreminder.co.uk/2023/06/12/bone-dry-lake-district-river-in-englands-wettest-place/. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[ix] See https://www.keswick.org/usercontent/doc/50941/an%20introduction%20to%20geological%20features%20in%20and%20around%20keswick.pdf. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[x] Shampo MA, Kyle RA, Steensma DP. Hans Geiger—German Physicist and the Geiger Counter. InMayo Clinic Proceedings 2011 Dec 1 (Vol. 86, No. 12, p. e54). Elsevier.
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[xii] Health & Safety Executive. Radon in the workplace. See https://www.hse.gov.uk/radiation/ionising/radon.htm. Accessed 15 February 2024.
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[xvi] Radon and cancer. See https://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention/radiation-exposure/radon.html#:~:text=The%20International%20Agency%20for%20Research,as%20“carcinogenic%20to%20humans.” Accessed 15 February 2024.
[xvii] Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs. UKCP Headline Findings. See https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/metofficegovuk/pdf/research/ukcp/ukcp18-headline-findings-2.pdf. Accessed 15 February 2024.
[xviii] Groves-Kirkby CJ, Crockett RG, Denman AR, Phillips PS. A critical analysis of climatic influences on indoor radon concentrations: Implications for seasonal correction. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 2015 Oct 1;148:16-26.
[xix] Kendall GM, Smith TJ. Doses to organs and tissues from radon and its decay products. Journal of Radiological Protection. 2002 Dec 2;22(4):389.
[xx] Hudson JG. Cloud condensation nuclei. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 1993 Apr;32(4):596-607.
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[xxiii] Local Energy Alliance Program. Stack effect: the driving force behind heat loss in homes and what to do about it. See https://leap-va.org/stack-effect-the-driving-force-behind-heat-loss-in-homes-and-what-to-do-about-it/#:~:text=In%20buildings%2C%20stack%20effect%20is,fireplace%20draft%20up%20a%20chimney. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxiv] Ensign Building Solutions. Why rainfall elevates radon levels in your home. See https://www.ensignbuildingsolutions.com/blog-posts/why-rainfall-elevates-radon-levels-in-your-home. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxv] RadonSeal. Radon gas is all around us. See https://www.radonseal.com/radon_gas.htm. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxvi] Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Physical agents. See https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/radon.html#. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxvii] National Oceanography Centre. Global sea-level rise at the end of the last Ice Age. 1 December 2010. https://noc.ac.uk/news/global-sea-level-rise-end-last-ice-age#:~:text=Southampton%20researchers%20have%20estimated%20that,to%202.5%20metres%20per%20century. Accessed 21 February 2024.
[xxviii] Williams R. Permafrost in England during the Last Glacial Period. Nature 205, 1304–1305 (1965). https://doi.org/10.1038/2051304a0.
[xxix] MetOffice. Permafrost. See https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/climate/climate-explained/permafrost. Accessed 15 February 2024.
[xxx] Wikipedia. Subarctic. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subarctic#:~:text=The%20subarctic%20zone%20is%20a,%2C%20Siberia%2C%20and%20the%20Cairngorms. Accessed 21 February 2024.
[xxxi] Glover PW, Blouin M. Increased radon exposure from thawing of permafrost due to climate change. Earth's Future. 2022 Feb;10(2):e2021EF002598.
[xxxii] Visit Keswick. The Bowder Stone. See https://www.keswick.org/explore/not-to-miss/the-bowder-stone#:~:text=The%20Bowder%20Stone%20(what3words%20%2F%2F%2F,it%20balances%20all%20by%20itself. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxxiii] Keswick Launch Co. Bowder Stone. See https://keswick-launch.co.uk/explore/listing/bowder-stone/. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxxiv] BMC. The Bowderstone. Classic hardcore Lakes Bouldering. See https://www.thebmc.co.uk/modules/rad/view.aspx?id=4901. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxxv] Earp FE. The Bowder Stone: A Cumbrian ‘Old Stone’ with a Nottingham connection. 18 October 2014. See https://nottinghamhiddenhistoryteam.wordpress.com/2014/10/18/the-bowder-stone-a-cumbrian-old-stone-with-a-nottingham-connection/. Accessed 18 February 2023.
[xxxvi] Wild camping in the Lake District. See https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/visit/lake-district/wild-camping-in-the-lake-district. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxxvii] Morecambe Bay cockling disaster. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morecambe_Bay_cockling_disaster. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxxviii] Prange M. Climate change is fueling migration. Do climate migrants have legal protections? 19 December 2022. See https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/climate-change-fueling-migration-do-climate-migrants-have-legal-protections. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xxxix] IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. Chapter 11: Weather and climate extreme events in a changing climate. See https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-11/. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xl] Weston T. House of Lords Library. See https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/climate-change-induced-migration-uk-collaboration-with-international-partners/#:~:text=In%202022%20it%20estimated%20this,figure%20varies%20significantly%20each%20year. Accessed 17 February 2024.
[xli] International Organization for Migration. World migration report 2022: Chapter 9 - Migration and slow-onset impacts of climate change: taking stock and taking action. See https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2022-chapter-9. Accessed 17 February 2022.
[xlii] Institute for Economics & Peace. See https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Ecological-Threat-Register-Press-Release-27.08-FINAL.pdf. Accessed 23 February 2024.
[xliii] Wikipedia. Drumlin. from the Irish word droimnín ("little ridge"), first recorded in 1833, in the classical sense is an elongated hill in the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg formed by glacial ice acting on underlying unconsolidated till or ground moraine. Assemblages of drumlins are referred to as fields or swarms;they can create a landscape which is often described as having a 'basket of eggs topography'. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drumlin. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[xliv] Polkadot. Derwentwater. See https://www.polkadottankerton.com/products/derwentwater. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[xlv] Woszczyk M, Schubert CJ. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from an anthropogenically transformed lake (Lake Licheńskie, Poland). Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 2023 Dec;128(12):e2023JG007594.
[xlvi] Blue Green Algae in the Lake District.
See https://consult.environment-agency.gov.uk/cumbria-and-lancashire/blue-green-algae-in-cumbria-and-lancashire/user_uploads/blue-green-algae-blog-1.pdf. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[xlvii] GB non-native species secretariat. New Zealand pigmyweed. 3 October 2019. See https://www.nonnativespecies.org/non-native-species/information-portal/view/1017. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[xlviii] Vann B. Invasive pygmyweed threatens Lake District species. 8 August 2023. See https://www.prolandscapermagazine.com/invasive-pygmyweed-threatens-lake-district-species/. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[xlix] WEKA Industrie Medien. Human waste turned into energy and cryptocurrency. 13 July 2021. See https://waste-management-world.com/artikel/human-waste-turned-into-energy-and-cryptocurrency/#. Accessed 22 February 2024.
[l] Global Climate Change. Methane. See https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/methane/#:~:text=The%20concentration%20of%20methane%20in,(which%20began%20in%201750). Accessed 18 February 2024.
[li] Environment Agency. Derwent Water Water Body. See https://environment.data.gov.uk/catchment-planning/WaterBody/GB31228965. Accessed 21 February 2024.
[lii] See https://www-cloudfront.allerdale.gov.uk/media/filer_public/b6/6d/b66d3b04-8d2d-43da-a933-7658aa028034/river_derwent__bassenthwaite_lake_sac_evidence_pack.pdf. Accessed 18 February 2024.
[liii] The Rivers Trust. See https://theriverstrust.org/sewage-map. Accessed 18 February 2024.
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