Whenever I climb the Lake District’s Great Gable (899 metres)[i], I usually have whisky on my mind. This time it was climate change although I admit to giving whisky a serious thought. I started my walk at Honister, where there are plenty of activities for visitors, in addition to now being the location of one of England’s last working slate mines[ii].
Moses Rigg
These days the mining is fully legal, but that was not always the case. This was in part thanks to 24-year-old Moses Rigg, whose name has lingered for many centuries. Moses was a shadowy slate worker who was properly named John Rigg[iii], albeit Moses to his companions. He was born in 1738, but by 1762 had become an accomplished smuggler of graphite from the Honister mines. There is even a high-level path - Moses Trod - named after him that skirts the base of Great Gable, and links Honister to Wasdale. In Rigg’s day, the graphite was known as wadd or black lead. Elsewhere in the world, graphite occurred in flakes or shales, but in the small stretch of Honister, a pure form had been laid down as solid lumps in lengthy deposits, or pipes. Wadd was then a valuable and highly guarded natural resource.
Graphite and wadd
It is said that wadd was first discovered at Honister in the 1500s when a mighty storm uprooted an oak to reveal a glistening black substance beneath. Wadd was first used by the monks of Furness for marking sheep, but by the beginning of the 17th century Cumbrian wadd was widely known as the best of the best and even Italy’s prestigious Michelangelo School of Art used it. The large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to the mountain of Grey Knotts, which lies close to Honister. This deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid and could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form.
Graphite was widely sought in those days and its value was soon realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs. England appears always to have had a fractious relationship with its European neighbours. This association escalated into an arms race in the 18th century and the value of wadd rocketed. At its peak, a ton would fetch £1300, which is approximately £330,000 today. Because of this, the Honister mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more graphite was needed.
Thanks to wadd’s value, robbery and smuggling were rife and miners were searched at the end of their shifts. In 1752, stealing or receiving stolen wadd became a felony, punishable by whipping, hard labour, or deportation. Even pocketing the residue from spoil heaps was an offence, but this did not deter the locals. Children would follow the carts and scour the ground behind them for anything that fell off. Some risked even more. A woman known as Black Sal became so adept as a thief that she was hunted to death by the mine owner’s dogs. There is also the tale of William Hetherington, ostensibly a copper miner, for whom the most profitable part of his work was the secret door into a neighbouring wadd mine[iv], a mine he did not own. Wadd gave rise to plenty of mischief and illegal activity.
Pencils
It was not solely cannonballs, however. The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but the graphite for this purpose had to be smuggled in the early days. Because graphite was soft, it required some form of encasement. Consequently, graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. In approximately 1560, an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti made what were probably the first blueprints for the modern, wood-encased carpentry pencil.
Their version was a flat, oval, more compact type of pencil. Its manufacture involved the hollowing out of a stick of juniper wood. Shortly afterwards, a superior technique was discovered. Two wooden halves were carved, a graphite stick inserted, and the halves then glued together. This is essentially the same method as is used today[v]. The distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The nearby Lakeland town of Keswick still manufactures pencils to this day, and also hosts the Derwent Pencil Museum[vi].
Illegal whisky
This was Rigg’s era as well, so he was not alone in his dishonesty. Graphite (wadd) was not his only line of business, which is when whisky enters the story. Rigg is said to have built a hideout high up in the crags of Great Gable, out of the way of the excise men, where he distilled illicit whisky from bog water. The water’s origin is a critical part of whisky, wherever it may be distilled. Bog water is not high on my list of advantages, but Rigg’s was a time when a whisky maker had to do the best they could. Anyway, there is plenty of bog around Great Gable and Honister. I know that from experience.
In his Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, a hand-written series that was published between 1955 and 1966 and is still seen by many as the definitive guide to the area[vii], Alfred Wainwright claimed that no trace of Rigg’s still remained. However, in 1983 an expedition by Jeremy Ashcroft and Guy Proctor from Trail magazine, discovered four stone walls and a stone floor on a small plateau, about 200 metres from Great Gable’s summit. In the middle of the floor was a lump of wadd[viii]. Clearly Ashcroft and Proctor are better hunters than me. On seven occasions I have climbed Great Gable, and on each occasion, I have failed to find anything other than scattered rock, a memorial plaque on the summit to the Fell and Rock Climbing Club[ix], the best view on the planet from the Westmorland Cairn, but no sign of a derelict whisky still. I must clearly continue my search.
Graphite and pollution
Sadly, however profitable the mines, the activities they encouraged, be they legal or illegal, influenced the climate we experience today. Honister played one part in the overall catastrophe now facing mankind. These days, research has shown that natural graphite mining can cause dust emissions.
The purification of battery-grade anode products requires high quantities of sodium hydroxide and hydrofluoric acid, which may be harmful to both human health and the environment. Around 75,000 tonnes of graphite are required to create one million electric vehicles. This means that to produce 12 million electric vehicles will need 900,000 tonnes of graphite by 2025[x]. What Honister started now continues worldwide. Natural graphite is considered by the European Union to be a critical raw material. These days China is the largest global producer of graphite, accounting for 75% of the total in 2017. The largest other producers are Brazil, India, Canada, Russia and Austria. The UK, once an exporter, is now a net importer of natural graphite. Its total graphite import is about 3800 tonnes, worth £3.4 million in 2017[xi].
Sheep and lambs in the road
As I climbed Great Gable, I saw the effects of climate change head on. Even before my walk, while I was driving to Honister, I saw sheep and lambs in the middle of the road. This behaviour strongly suggested changing grazing patterns and habitat use to me, influenced by alterations in vegetation growth because of shifts in temperature and precipitation[xii].
Warmer temperatures extend the growing season and lead to changes in the availability of grazing resources[xiii]. Consequently, sheep roam more widely in search of suitable food and so come closer to roads, and even on them. I do not believe the figures exist, but I would love to know if climate change increases the risk of sheep being involved in road traffic accidents. Therein lies a project for the future. I had started my climb early and it was wet and raining as I parked my car, although the clouds cleared rapidly. I felt that might be significant as well, as the speedy clearing of clouds was consistent with predictions that climate change is associated with more frequent and intense weather fluctuations[xiv]. Such fluctuations certainly affect a region's biodiversity in addition to the landscape, thereby influencing the health of both plant and animal species. The increased rainfall worried me as well, as it can lead to more frequent flooding, as well as affecting soil stability and plant communities[xv].
Rock temperature
On my way up the mountain, I felt the temperature of some of the rocks I passed. Being a former medical man, I used the back of my hand rather than my palm. For some reason it is said to be more accurate. It was clear that rocks on the lower slopes were warmer while those higher up the mountain were cooler.
This temperature gradient is typical but increasing general temperatures can exacerbate these differences and stress those plants that are adapted to cooler conditions[xvi]. It is too early to say whether this is the case in Lakeland but is something to watch. Warmer temperatures at lower altitudes also lead to earlier snowmelt, which affects the availability of water for plants during the growing season[xvii]. Additionally, alpine species, which are often adapted to narrow temperature ranges and are a common finding in Lakeland, may find it difficult to migrate upwards in response to rising temperatures thanks to unsuitable habitat conditions at higher altitudes[xviii].
Dead heather
There were several areas of mountain near the mines that were denuded of much vegetation, in addition to plenty of dead heather. In these areas I saw no sign of animal tracks or life generally. There was evident habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity. Heather is particularly sensitive to drought and heat stress, conditions that are becoming more frequent with climate change. Dead heather can also reduce the habitat quality for species that depend on it, for example red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica). The bare areas also made me worry that there were toxins in the soil, perhaps introduced by the disposal of waste associated with earlier mining.
Mining may be an essential activity for obtaining materials necessary for the well-being and development of society. However, the activity produces important environmental impacts that must be controlled. It is known that there are different soils near new or abandoned mines that have been contaminated with potentially toxic elements, and currently represent an important environmental problem[xix]. Honister seemed to show this.
Bog cotton and marsh thistle
As I climbed, there was plenty of bog cotton (Eriophorum angustifolium) and marsh thistle (Cirsium palustre) around me, highlighting the importance of wetland species in the Great Gable ecosystem. Changing water levels and temperatures threaten these plants, which are themselves sensitive indicators of hydrological change.
Bog cotton thrives in waterlogged soils, and alterations in precipitation patterns can impact its distribution. Marsh thistle, on the other hand, can indicate areas where waterlogged conditions are beginning to dry out. Both plants love moisture, but I associate bog cotton with true bogs while marsh thistle grows on the margins. Changes in the abundance and health of both these plants can provide an early warning of hydrological shift in the ecosystem.
Lichen
Lakeland normally has plenty of lichen, but I was concerned there was not too much to see as I walked. This reduction, and at times there was even lichen death, aligned with lichens being highly sensitive to air quality and climate change and playing crucial roles in nutrient cycling and habitat provision. Lichens are often used as bioindicators of environmental health because of their sensitivity to atmospheric conditions. A decline in the amount of lichen suggested to me that there were increased levels of air pollution in the Honister area, although the source was unclear. This was despite me being high up on a Lakeland fell. Even there it was possible to feel the effects of nitrogen deposition from agricultural runoff lower down, or emissions from vehicles[xx]. Climate change also alters the availability of moisture for lichens, thereby affecting their growth and survival[xxi].
Deer grass and parsley fern
There was a large amount deer grass (Trichophorum cespitosum) around me on Great Gable as well as parsley fern (Cryptogramma crispa), which suggested a possible shift in plant community dynamics.
Deer grass is often associated with wet, acidic soils and can dominate in areas where other species are less competitive. Changes in soil moisture can influence the distribution of deer grass and how it interacts with other plant species. Meanwhile, parsley fern is a species normally adapted to rocky, well-drained soils and indicated to me possible changes in soil conditions and microclimate at higher altitudes.
Litter
Unfortunately, untidy people seem to visit most places and Great Gable was no exception. At various points on my climb, I saw pieces of litter, evidently discarded by others on the same route as me. The presence of litter, including lost climbing kit and a yet another doggy poo bag, was evident indication of human impact on the environment. Litter increases greenhouse gas output by decomposing in the environment. It also harms wildlife - one million birds and 100,000 marine mammals and sea turtles die annually having eaten or become trapped by plastic[xxii]. Unfortunately, a plastic bag takes a long time to decompose (10 to 100 years). There are alternatives. Compostable, plant-based bags are a better alternative, but they can be costly[xxiii]. Even if a so-called biodegradable bag is used, only 20-30% of the bag is derived from plant material, the remainder being a fossil -uel-derived biodegradable plastic, polybutylene adipate terephthalate[xxiv] (PBAT).
Insects
The moths were out, flitting between grasses, sedges and rushes. They carefully aligned themselves along the length of the plant on which they landed, to make themselves harder to spot.
There were also flies on sheep droppings, and insects on rocks, all of which pointed to a thriving invertebrate population. Insect populations are highly sensitive to climate variations, with potential disruptions in life cycles and distributions[xxv]. Insects also play crucial roles in pollination, decomposition, and as a food source for other wildlife. Changes in temperature and precipitation affect the timing of insect appearance, in addition to the availability of food resources, and lead to mismatches in ecological interactions[xxvi]. For example, an earlier spring season causes insects to emerge before their food plants are available, thereby affecting insect survival and reproduction.
Herdwick sheep
I adore Herdwick sheep, and there were plenty to see as I climbed Great Gable. The animal is native to the Lake District and faces challenges from changing vegetation and habitat conditions. Shifts in plant communities affect their grazing patterns and overall health. It is sad to see, and nearly wherever I walk in Lakeland I encounter plenty of Herdwicks. They invariably look at me with a confident what-are-you-doing-here expression. In a way they are right.
Herdwicks are as much a part of Lakeland as the region’s multiple watercourses. The name “Herdwick” is derived from the Old Norse herdvyck, meaning sheep pasture. The origin of the breed itself is unknown, but the most common theory is that the ancestors of Herdwick sheep were introduced by early Norse settlers. According to this, the sheep were brought to the region somewhere between the 10th and 11th centuries during the Viking invasions of western England. There is also a piece of local folklore that suggests the Herdwicks came from a wrecked Spanish Armada ship (1588). Whatever the actuality, it appears that the Herdwick was an important breed in the Lake District by the end of the 12th century.
Although Herdwicks are low in lambing capacity and perceived wool quality when compared with more common commercial breeds, they are prized for their robust health, an ability to live solely on forage, and their tendency to be territorial and not stray over the upland terrain of the Lake District[xxvii]. This is so-called hefting. Herdwick sheep are hefted, which means they hold to a place on the mountain, without fencing to contain them, because they are taught a sense of belonging by their mothers in their first summer. This stretches back many centuries and has never been broken[xxviii], even despite the massive cull that occurred after the foot-and-mouth epidemic of 2001. Cumbria was the most severely affected part of the country.
Herdwick sheep may be well adapted to the harsh conditions of the Lake District, but climate change can alter the availability and quality of their forage. Warmer temperatures and changing precipitation patterns affect the growth and composition of plant communities, impacting the nutritional quality of the forage available to sheep. This has implications for Herdwick growth, reproduction, and overall health. Watch out Herdwicks, the climate is changing, but I guess you know that already.
Skylarks
Skylarks (Alauda arvensis) are extremely common on the open fell, and my climb of Great Gable was no exception. Although this was a positive indicator of avian life, birds are also affected by climate change, which can alter their migration patterns, breeding times, and food availability[xxix].
Skylarks are ground-nesting birds that depend on open habitats, albeit the bird prefers short vegetation for nesting and foraging. Changes in agricultural practices, driven by climate change, affect the availability of suitable nesting sites and food resources for skylarks. Additionally, warmer temperatures can affect the timing of insect appearance, which is a crucial food source for skylark chicks during the breeding season[xxx].
Erosion
The narrow paths I was using were becoming eroded, not only by human and animal use, but also by the weather. Soil erosion is partly linked to altered soil conditions at higher altitudes[xxxi], thanks to changing rainfall patterns and human activities[xxxii]. This leads to loss of soil fertility and further degradation of habitat.
Soil erosion is a significant concern in upland areas, where steep slopes and high rainfall increase the risk of landslides and soil loss. Landslides are certainly seen in Lakeland[xxxiii]. Changes in vegetation cover, driven by climate change, also affect soil stability and increase the risk of erosion.
Black slugs
I happen to like black slugs (Arion ater), although many of my colleagues do not, and I came across plenty of slugs on Great Gable. I am commonly asked how to kill them when, for me, a slug should be preserved. Slugs and snails are smarter than many presume and are certainly able to learn a sequence of events[xxxiv].
My sighting of black slugs, which at times were happily munching sheep droppings, underscores the importance of invertebrates in nutrient cycling and soil health. However, climate change alters their habitats and life cycles, and disrupts these ecological roles[xxxv]. Black slugs are decomposers that play a crucial role in breaking down organic matter and returning nutrients to the soil. Changes in temperature and moisture levels affect their activity and distribution and impact their ability to perform these ecological functions. Warmer temperatures and wetter conditions increase slug activity, while drier conditions reduce their abundance and activity.
Butterflies and frogs
At one point I saw a skipper butterfly flitting this way and that. There are lots of different skippers, as it is a worldwide family of almost 3500 species[xxxvi]. My sighting, despite the difficulty I had in photographing it, added to the numerous frogs I saw as I climbed and highlights the biodiversity present on Great Gable.
Amphibians and butterflies are highly sensitive to climate change, which can impact their populations and distribution[xxxvii]. Butterflies are important pollinators and indicators of ecosystem health. Changes in temperature and precipitation can affect the availability of nectar sources and the timing of butterfly appearance, and lead to population declines[xxxviii]. Meanwhile, frogs are also highly sensitive to changes in temperature and moisture levels, which can affect their breeding and survival. Amphibians are particularly vulnerable to climate change because of their permeable skin and dependence on aquatic habitats for breeding[xxxix].
Diversity of plant life
As I walked, Great Gable demonstrated a huge diversity of plants, including maiden pink, daisies, northern sedge, bilberry, meadowsweet, cuckoospit, and stag’s-horn clubmoss. Many of these species are vulnerable to changing temperatures and precipitation patterns, which alter their phenology and distribution[xl].
Maiden pink (Dianthus deltoides) is a low-growing perennial that thrives in well-drained soils and open habitats. Changes in temperature and precipitation affect its growth and reproduction, and lead to a decline in population. Daisies (Bellis perennis) are common in grasslands and meadows, but changes in mowing practices and grazing pressure, driven by climate change, affect their abundance and distribution. Northern sedge (Carex disticha) is adapted to wet, acidic soils - a general finding in Lakeland - and can indicate changes in soil moisture levels. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) is a common shrub in heathlands and moorlands, but changes in temperature and precipitation can affect its growth and fruit production. Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) is a wetland plant that thrives in damp soils, but changes in hydrological conditions impact its distribution and abundance. Cuckoospit, produced by froghopper larvae (likely Philaenus spumarius), is an indicator of healthy plant communities, but changes in temperature and moisture levels can affect the abundance of froghoppers and their host plants. Stag’s-horn clubmoss (Lycopodium clavatum) is a spore-bearing plant that thrives in well-drained soils and open habitats, but changes in temperature and precipitation affect its growth and reproduction.
My return
By the time I had summited Great Gable, failed once again to find Rigg’s illegal whisky still, and had returned to my parked car near Honister mines, it was impossible to escape climate change. Everything was adapting, and that included me. Some were succeeding, others failing, but the planet as we once knew it had gone and would not be coming back. I was saddened after my four-hour walk, as wherever I looked, I had seen climate change. There was no going back. Mankind could only go forward and was not doing a very effective job. It would be dishonest to say anything different.
***
Hashtags
#ClimateChange #EnvironmentalImpact #LakeDistrict #GreatGable #SustainableFuture #NatureConservation #WildlifeProtection #GraphiteMining #EcosystemHealth #Biodiversity #ClimateCrisis #SustainableLiving #PollutionAwareness #NatureWriting #ConservationMatters #ClimateAction #PreserveNature #EnvironmentalAwareness #EcoFriendly #SaveThePlanet
References
[i] Wikipedia. Great Gable. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Gable. Accessed 22 June 2024.
[ii] See https://honister.com/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=GMB. Accessed 22 June 2024.
[iii] Lane C. John ‘moses’ Rigg. ISBN 9781802271829. See https://cmlibrary.bibliocommons.com/v2/record/S106C3685581. Accessed 22 June 2024.
[iv] Kitching G. Whisky in the jar. 2 June 2020. See https://www.lakelandwalkingtales.co.uk/wad-and-great-gable/. Accessed 22 June 2024.
[v] Wikipedia. Pencil. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencil. Accessed 8 August 2024.
[vi] Derwent Pencil Museum. See https://www.derwentart.com/en-gb/c/about/company/derwent-pencil-museum. Accessed 8 August 2024.
[vii] Wikipedia. Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictorial_Guide_to_the_Lakeland_Fells. Accessed 22 July 2024.
[viii] Kitching G. Standing on the shoulders of giants. 18 December 2016. See https://www.lakelandwalkingtales.co.uk/scafell-pike-and-sca-fell/. Accessed 22 June 2024.
[ix] Fell & Rock Climbing Club. See https://www.frcc.co.uk. Accessed 22 June 2024.
[x] Good Electronics. Climate-change impacts of graphite production. See https://goodelectronics.org/climate-change-impacts-of-graphite-production/#:~:text=Research%20has%20shown%20that%20natural,human%20health%20and%20the%20environment. Accessed 8 August 2024.
[xi] Brown TJ, Idoine NE, Raycraft ER, Hobbs SF, Shaw RA, Everett P, Kresse C, Deady EA, Bide T. World mineral production 2013-17.
[xii] Wu Z, Dijkstra P, Koch GW, Peñuelas J, Hungate BA. Responses of terrestrial ecosystems to temperature and precipitation change: A meta‐analysis of experimental manipulation. Global change biology. 2011 Feb;17(2):927-42.
[xiii] Albon SD, Irvine RJ, Halvorsen O, Langvatn R, Loe LE, Ropstad E, Veiberg V, Van Der Wal R, Bjørkvoll EM, Duff EI, Hansen BB. Contrasting effects of summer and winter warming on body mass explain population dynamics in a food‐limited Arctic herbivore. Global change biology. 2017 Apr;23(4):1374-89.
[xiv] IPCC. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. Working Group 1: The Physical Science Basis. See https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/. Accessed 20 July 2024.
[xv] Fowler HJ, Wilby RL. Detecting changes in seasonal precipitation extremes using regional climate model projections: Implications for managing fluvial flood risk. Water Resources Research. 2010 Mar;46(3).
[xvi] Grabherr G, Gottfried M, Pauli H. Climate change impacts in alpine environments. Geography Compass. 2010 Aug;4(8):1133-53.
[xvii] Barnett TP, Adam JC, Lettenmaier DP. Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions. Nature. 2005 Nov 17;438(7066):303-9.
[xviii] Pauli H, Gottfried M, Dullinger S, Abdaladze O, Akhalkatsi M, Alonso JL, Coldea G, Dick J, Erschbamer B, Calzado RF, Ghosn D. Recent plant diversity changes on Europe’s mountain summits. Science. 2012 Apr 20;336(6079):353-5.
[xix] Terrones-Saeta JM, Suárez-Macías J, Bernardo-Sánchez A, Álvarez de Prado L, Menéndez Fernández M, Corpas-Iglesias FA. Treatment of soil contaminated by mining activities to prevent contamination by encapsulation in ceramic construction materials. Materials. 2021 Nov 9;14(22):6740.
[xx] Fletcher A, Nash TH. Lichen Biology. The Lichenologist. 2009 Nov 1;41(6):689.
[xxi] Ellis CJ, Coppins BJ, Dawson TP. Predicted response of the lichen epiphyte Lecanora populicola to climate change scenarios in a clean-air region of Northern Britain. Biological Conservation. 2007 Mar 1;135(3):396-404.
[xxii] The Waste Management and Recycling Blog. Does litter cause climate change? See https://www.forgerecycling.co.uk/blog/does-litter-cause-climate-change/#:~:text=Indirectly%2C%20litter%20increases%20greenhouse%20gas,or%20got%20trapped%20in%20plastic. Accessed 10 August 2024.
[xxiii] Barking Bags. See https://barkingbags.co.uk/blogs/news/essential-things-you-need-to-know-about-dog-poo-and-what-to-do-with-it#:~:text=Unfortunately%2C%20a%20plastic%20bag%20takes,shreds%20of%20plastic%20still%20present. Accessed 10 August 2024.
[xxiv]Gan G. Should I use biodegradable dog poo bags? 20 November 2023. See https://petimpact.co.uk/blogs/poo-revolution/should-i-use-biodegradable-dog-poo-bags. Accessed 10 August 2024.
[xxv] Parmesan C. Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.. 2006 Dec 1;37(1):637-69.
[xxvi] Visser ME, Both C. Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2005 Dec 22;272(1581):2561-9.
[xxvii] Wikipedia. Herdwick. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herdwick. Accessed 9 August 2024.
[xxviii] Rebanks J. Nine things you never knew about sheep. See https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/19ZsJR8pv8tM6GcxbhFbwRD/nine-things-you-never-knew-about-sheep. Accessed 9 August 2024.
[xxix] Crick HQ. The impact of climate change on birds. Ibis. 2004 Sep;146:48-56.
[xxx] Both C, Bouwhuis S, Lessells CM, Visser ME. Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird. Nature. 2006 May 4;441(7089):81-3.
[xxxi] Evans M, Warburton J. Geomorphology of upland peat: erosion, form and landscape change. John Wiley & Sons; 2011 Mar 29.
[xxxii] Bonn A, Allott T, Hubacek K, Stewart J. Drivers of environmental change in uplands. Routledge; 2009 Jan 13.
[xxxiii] Baron O. Landslide in Lake District after torrential rain blocks trains near Windermere. See https://www.lancs.live/news/local-news/landslide-lake-district-after-torrential-19622333. Accessed 9 August 2024.
[xxxiv] Creation Moments. Slugs and Snails Have Brains Like Mammals. 2 9December 2007. See https://www.thenatureinus.com/2007/12/slugs-and-snails-have-brains-like.html#:~:text=Slugs%2C%20and%20even%20garden%20snails,store%20information%20as%20do%20mammals. Accessed 9 August 2024.
[xxxv] Curry JP. Grassland invertebrates: ecology, influence on soil fertility and effects on plant growth. Springer Science & Business Media; 1993 Nov 30.
[xxxvi] Art Shapiro’s Butterfly Site. Butterfly Listing by Latin Name (Family Hesperiidae). See https://ucdavis.github.io/butterfly.ucdavis.edu/butterfly/latin/Hesperiidae.html#:~:text=The%20skippers%20are%20a%20worldwide,of%20the%20%22true%20butterflies%22. SAccessed 9 August 2024.
[xxxvii] Blaustein AR, Han BA, Relyea RA, Johnson PT, Buck JC, Gervasi SS, Kats LB. The complexity of amphibian population declines: understanding the role of cofactors in driving amphibian losses. Annals of the New york Academy of Sciences. 2011 Mar;1223(1):108-19.
[xxxviii] Roy DB, Sparks TH. Phenology of British butterflies and climate change. Global change biology. 2000 Apr;6(4):407-16.
[xxxix] Beebee TJ, Griffiths RA. The amphibian decline crisis: a watershed for conservation biology?. Biological conservation. 2005 Oct 1;125(3):271-85.
[xl] Walther GR, Roques A, Hulme PE, Sykes MT, Pyšek P, Kühn I, Zobel M, Bacher S, Botta-Dukát Z, Bugmann H, Czucz B. Alien species in a warmer world: risks and opportunities. Trends in ecology & evolution. 2009 Dec 1;24(12):686-93.
Comentários