Modern Haweswater
Whenever I visit Haweswater, I admit to feeling depressed. Despite its evident beauty and the fact it is so remote, Haweswater, once the site of a volcanic caldera, is now a reservoir and no longer a natural lake. Its creation was the result of immense unhappiness and protest as the villages of Measdale and Mardale Green were drowned, solely to provide water to Manchester.
Work to raise the height of the original natural lake was started in 1929. It was controversially dammed after the UK Parliament passed a Private Act giving Manchester Corporation permission to build the reservoir to supply drinking water to the city. The decision caused a public outcry because the farming villages of Measand and Mardale Green would be flooded, and the valley altered forever. Despite the outcry, the drowning went ahead.
The reservoir is now owned by United Utilities, which supplies about 25% of the North West's water[i]. Before the valley was flooded in 1935, all the farms and dwellings of the villages of Measand and Mardale Green were demolished, as well as the centuries-old Dun Bull Inn at Mardale Green. The village church was dismantled, and the stone used in constructing the dam. Meanwhile all the bodies in the churchyard were exhumed and re-buried at nearby Shap.
Alfred Wainwright summarised it well in his A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells (1955-1966), when he wrote:
If we can accept as absolutely necessary the conversion of Haweswater, then it must be conceded that Manchester have done the job as unobtrusively as possible. Mardale is still a noble valley. But man works with such clumsy hands! Gone for ever are the quiet wooded bays and shingly shores that nature had fashioned so sweetly in the Haweswater of old; how aggressively ugly is the tidemark of the new Haweswater!
United Utilities may have tried hard but is not always welcoming, its danger signs at several points reading:
Danger
Deep Fast Flowing Water
Deep Chambers
High Voltage
Moving Machinery
Dangerous Chemicals
Somone must explain to me how these dangers in any way assist in the claimed global battle against climate change.
Golden eagles
By the time I had encountered two of these signs I was walking on tiptoe and peering suspiciously around every corner. No wonder the last remaining golden eagles in England disappeared from Riggindale, a valley offshoot from Haweswater Reservoir, in 2015. It was that year the last remaining male golden eagle died, having spent 12 years alone, and without female company[ii]. The loss of the golden eagle highlights the changing Lakeland climate. Very little is sudden in climate change. There are clear global catastrophes but the change that has created them is far harder to see.
For the golden eagle, climate change leads to the alteration of habitat, thanks to shifts in vegetation[iii] and the availability of prey[iv]. There are phenological changes as well. Phenology is the study of cyclical and seasonal natural phenomena and is crucial for understanding the timing of events in the life cycle of species. Climate change disrupts these cycles and affects golden eagles by influencing their breeding timing and migration patterns. Warmer temperatures lead to earlier springs, which cause a mismatch between the hatching of eagle chicks and the peak availability of prey. This phenological mismatch can result in lower survival rates for chicks if food is scarce at critical times[v].
Although golden eagles are generally resident birds, some populations exhibit migratory behaviour. Climate change can alter migratory routes and timings, impacting energy expenditure and survival rates. For instance, changes in wind patterns and thermal currents can affect the efficiency of long-distance flights[vi].
The extreme weather events associated with climate change will have escaped no one’s attention. Barely a week goes past without a new disaster being declared somewhere in the world. The increase in extreme weather events, such as storms, droughts, and heatwaves, poses direct threats to golden eagles. Severe storms destroy nests, cause direct mortality, and reduce reproductive success. Nestlings and eggs are particularly vulnerable to strong winds and heavy rainfall. Extended periods of high temperatures and drought can lead to dehydration and heat stress in golden eagles. These conditions also affect prey the availability of prey
Sparrowhawks
Haweswater was not devoid of raptors, however, as I saw a sparrowhawk glide silently past me on one occasion. For me it was only a glimpse, but the raptor had been sufficient to send the remaining birdlife crazy. It was the click-like warning sounds of nearby wrens that had made me see the sparrowhawk in the first place. They were the only species to emit a warning. The remainder just went silent – the great tit, coal tit, song thrush, robin, wood warbler, blackbird, and common chaffinch, had all had been making the hugest din, until the sparrowhawk appeared.
The sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) has brilliant yellow eyes and long yellow talons. It is a relatively small yet skilful predator that swoops down to ambush its prey unawares. It is strongly reliant on woodland, has been threatened in the past, but is currently widespread throughout the UK[vii]. No wonder the wrens were clicking.
Climate change affects the sparrowhawk in much the same way it affects the golden eagle. Yet there is a reverse effect as well. That is, the sparrowhawk can also affect climate change itself. Sparrowhawks play a crucial role in their ecosystems, influencing prey populations and broader ecological processes. Their presence and activities during climate change highlight the complex dynamics within ecosystems. This is through top-down regulation, changes in biodiversity, and changes in the ecosystem as well. As predators, sparrowhawks exert top-down control on prey populations, impacting the structure and dynamics of ecological communities. By preying on small birds and mammals, sparrowhawks help regulate the populations of these species. Climate change-induced shifts in prey availability and distribution can alter these dynamics, and lead to cascading ecological effects[viii].
Sparrowhawks are indicator species, and reflect the health of the ecosystem in which they reside. Changes in sparrowhawk populations can signal broader environmental changes, such as habitat degradation, or shifts in prey populations. Conservation efforts focussing on sparrowhawks can thus benefit overall biodiversity.
Sparrowhawks contribute to ecosystem services through their predatory activities. By preying on small mammals and birds, sparrowhawks can help control populations of species considered pests, providing a natural form of pest management.
Forests and carbon dioxide
My route was simple. Start at the village of Burn Banks, head to Naddle Farm, cross the Harper Hills to the Old Corpse Road, down to the reservoir and back through Naddle Forest to where I had started, looking at trees all the way. The Old Corpse Road, which is said by some to be haunted, was last used properly in 1736, when a resident of then Mardale Green, John Holme, left for Shap feet first. I saw no sign of a ghost when I went walking.
Forests cover about 30% of the Earth’s land surface. As forests grow, their trees take in carbon from the air and store it in wood, plant matter, and under the soil. If not for forests, much of this carbon would remain in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), the most important greenhouse gas (GHG) that drives climate change, although methane (CH4) does not help. Methane is the second most abundant anthropogenic GHG after CO2, accounting for about 16% of global emissions, and is up to 28 times as potent as CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere[ix].
Every year since 2000, forests are said to have removed approximately 2 billion metric tons of carbon from the atmosphere[x]. For reference, the world produces over 37 billion metric tons each year[xi]. This carbon sink function of forests, so-called carbon sequestration, is slowing climate change by reducing the rate at which CO2, mainly from the burning of fossil fuels, builds up in the atmosphere. Careful forest management is thus an important strategy to help address climate change in the future. Healthy forests also provide a host of other benefits, from clean water to habitat for plants and animals that can live nowhere else.
Over the past 8000 years, humans have cleared approximately half of the forests on the planet, mostly to make room for agriculture[xii]. Cutting down or burning forests releases the carbon stored in their trees and soil and prevents them from absorbing more CO2 in the future. Since 1850, about 30% of all CO2 emissions have come from deforestation[xiii]. Deforestation can also have more local climate impacts. Because trees release moisture that cools the air around them, scientists have found that deforestation has led to more intense heat waves in North America and Eurasia[xiv].
I rest my case - it escapes me why anyone would wish to fell a tree, for whatever reason. If you feel the urge, might I suggest you think again?
Young forests and saplings exhibit rapid growth rates, leading to high rates of carbon uptake. During this phase, trees allocate a substantial portion of assimilated carbon to biomass production. Studies indicate that young forests can sequester carbon at rates exceeding those of older forests because of their vigorous growth dynamics[xv]. For example, young birch and alder trees showed robust growth patterns, indicating high carbon sequestration potential[xvi]. These species are crucial for carbon capture and storage, especially in reforestation efforts. However, the absolute amount of carbon stored in young trees is lower compared with mature trees because of their smaller biomass.
Mature forests, characterised by slower growth rates, store significant amounts of carbon in their large biomass. Although the rate of carbon uptake decreases as trees age, mature forests contribute substantially to long-term carbon storage. The stability of carbon stored in mature trees is crucial for maintaining the carbon balance. Research[xvii] has highlighted that old-growth forests continue to sequester carbon, debunking the myth that carbon sequestration halts as forests age.
Different tree species exhibit varying capacities for carbon sequestration, influenced by their growth rates, wood density, and life span.
Species such as poplar and eucalyptus, known for their rapid growth, can sequester large amounts of carbon quickly. These species are often used in afforestation and reforestation projects aimed at carbon sequestration[xviii]. However, their shorter life span compared with slower-growing species means they require frequent replanting to maintain carbon sequestration rates.
Slow-growing species, such as oak and pine, accumulate biomass over extended periods, resulting in long-term carbon storage. These trees, with dense wood and extensive root systems, contribute significantly to soil carbon sequestration as well. The longevity of these species ensures sustained carbon storage over centuries[xix].
I was pleased to find a good mix of trees as I walked near Haweswater. There was plenty of potential for carbon sequestration around me.
Soil
Soil formation is a fundamental process in terrestrial ecosystems, providing the essential medium for plant growth and contributing to various ecological functions. The formation of soil is a complex, multi-faceted process involving the interaction of physical, chemical, and biological factors over long periods. Healthy soil is vital for carbon sequestration and overall forest health[xx]. Soil organic matter plays a key role in storing carbon and supporting the microbial activity that enhances soil fertility. The soil I could see near Haweswater looked to be of good quality. There are many processes that take place in the production of soil - weathering, organic matter accumulation, mineralisation, and leaching.
Weathering
Soil formation is a stepwise process and begins with the weathering of parent material, which includes the underlying geological material from which soil develops. This can be bedrock, sediments deposited by wind, water, or ice, or organic material. Weathering can be physical, chemical, or biological. Physical weathering involves the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller particles without altering their chemical composition.
It occurs through temperature fluctuations causing expansion and contraction, freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion by wind or water, and biological activities such as root growth[xxi]. Chemical weathering alters the mineral composition of the parent material. Key processes include hydrolysis, oxidation, and dissolution. For example, feldspar minerals can be transformed into clay minerals through hydrolysis, and iron-bearing minerals can oxidise to form iron oxides[xxii]. Finally, biological weathering is created by organisms such as plants, fungi, and bacteria, that contribute to the breakdown of parent material. Roots can penetrate cracks in rocks, expanding and breaking them apart, while organic acids produced by microbial activity enhance chemical weathering[xxiii].
Organic Matter Accumulation
As weathering progresses, organic matter begins to accumulate on the soil’s surface. This includes dead plant and animal material and the byproducts of microbial decomposition. The initial accumulation forms a litter layer, comprising leaves, twigs, and other plant debris. This layer is vital for providing nutrients and habitat for soil organisms[xxiv].
Soil organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates, break down organic material into simpler compounds. This decomposition releases nutrients into the soil and forms humus, a stable organic matter that enhances soil structure and fertility[xxv].
Mineralisation
Mineralisation is the process by which organic matter decomposes into inorganic substances, releasing essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur in forms that plants can absorb. Soil microorganisms are crucial in mineralisation, breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler inorganic compounds through enzymatic processes[xxvi]. Mineralisation contributes to nutrient cycling, ensuring the availability of essential elements for plant growth. The rate of mineralisation is influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, and the composition of organic matter[xxvii].
Leaching
Leaching is the removal of dissolved substances from the soil by water percolating through it. This process affects soil composition and nutrient availability. As water moves through soil, it can dissolve and carry away soluble salts, minerals, and nutrients, leading to the depletion of certain nutrients in the upper soil layers and their accumulation in lower layers or groundwater[xxviii]. Leaching contributes to the development of soil horizons, distinct layers within the soil profile that have different physical and chemical properties. The uppermost horizon is typically rich in organic matter and nutrients, while deeper horizons may have accumulations of leached materials[xxix].
Taken together, climate change can profoundly affect the health of soil. It adversely impacts soil health by reducing soil organic matter content, decreasing soil structure, and increasing vulnerability to erosion and other degradation processes[xxx].
Soil also has a considerable effect on human health, whether those effects are positive or negative, direct or indirect. Soil is an important source of nutrients in mankind’s food supply, and medicines such as antibiotics. However, nutrient imbalances and the presence of human pathogens in the soil’s biological community can cause negative effects on health. There are also many locations where various elements or chemical compounds are found in soil at toxic levels because of either natural conditions or anthropogenic activities[xxxi]. There is plenty of research waiting to be done on the relationship between soil health and human health, as it is clear the former influences the latter greatly.
Around Haweswater there was plenty of soil and I could see many areas where soil was being formed. Tree trunks rotting, fallen leaves disintegrating, rocks fragmenting, and so much more.
Coal
Buried beneath the rapidly growing bracken, as the vegetation in the open spaces and understorey of Naddle Forest gathered speed, at one point I saw a rotting tree trunk. It had clearly lain there for a considerable time. Part of it was turning black and it was impossible to not think of coal. After all, coal is a type of fossil fuel, formed when dead plant matter decays into peat, which is then converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years. Vast deposits of coal originate in former wetlands called coal forests that once covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and Permian times[xxxii]. The late Carboniferous period was from 359-299 million years ago, the Permian period following, from 299 until 252 million years ago.
This conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called coalification. Sadly, coal does not replenish quickly. It takes many millions of years to form, and my rotting tree trunk had manifestly not been lying in position for many millions of years. My best guess was twenty years at most. However, one kilogramme of coal will burn for no more than six hours. It takes a very long time to produce a small quantity of energy. Coal is a depleting resource and is not being replaced as speedily as it is being burned. Climate change does not help.
Coal has been a cornerstone of industrial development since the 19th century, providing an abundant and cheap source of energy. However, its extensive use has significantly contributed to climate change. The combustion of coal for electricity generation is a major source of CO2. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), coal-fired power plants account for nearly 40% of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion[xxxiii] .
This high level of emissions is because of coal's carbon-intensive nature, as burning coal releases more CO2 per unit of energy produced compared with oil and natural gas. Coal combustion also emits other pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter. These pollutants contribute to acid rain, respiratory illnesses, and environmental degradation, further compounding coal's environmental footprint[xxxiv]. The mining and transportation of coal also have significant environmental impacts, including habitat destruction, water pollution, and soil erosion[xxxv] .
Cabbage white butterfly
I knew, as my walk was drawing to its close, that I had truly flipped. I started talking to a butterfly and began feeling offended when it did not reply. It was a cabbage white (Pieris spp.), which seemed to be keeping pace with me, certainly for several hundred metres. It then flew away. I was pleased to see it, however, because the butterfly has usually migrated from southern Europe, and often does not survive an English winter. It has sometimes been seen crossing the English Channel in swarms of many hundreds[xxxvi]. The cabbage white is widely classified as a pest but was no pest to me. I was surprised to see that it was seeking out, and landing on, garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata). This is because some members of Pieris are threatened by the rapid spread of the fast-spreading garlic mustard plant, yet at Haweswater the butterfly was clearly seeking it out.
Once again, climate change takes its toll, this time on the cabbage white. Temperature changes, precipitation patterns, extreme weather events, and interactions with natural enemies all create problems.
Temperature is a crucial factor influencing the life cycle and distribution of the butterfly.
Rising temperatures alter the timing of life cycle events such as egg laying, larval development, and adult emergence. Studies have shown that warmer temperatures can lead to earlier spring emergence and extended flight periods, resulting in more generations each year[xxxvii]. This can increase the population size and all that can follow from that, especially for crop-growing farmers, to whom the cabbage white is a pest. As global temperatures rise thanks to climate change, the suitable habitat range for the cabbage white expands northward and to higher elevations. Haweswater is at 246 metres above sea level. This shift can lead to the colonisation of new areas, altering local ecosystems and increasing the species' range[xxxviii].
Changes in precipitation patterns because of climate change also impact the cabbage white butterfly in various ways. For example, reduced rainfall and increased drought frequency can stress host plants. Stressed plants may have lower nutritional value, which affects larval development and survival[xxxix]. Conversely, higher rainfall can enhance the growth of host plants, potentially benefiting the larvae. However, excessive moisture can also increase the incidence of fungal diseases and parasitoid activity, which may reduce butterfly populations[xl].
The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events pose direct and indirect risks to the cabbage white butterfly. Extreme weather damages habitats, destroys host plants, and directly causes mortality among larvae and adults. Heavy rain washes away eggs and larvae, and thereby reduces population sizes[xli]. Meanwhile, high temperatures can lead to heat stress and desiccation in both larvae and adults. Prolonged heatwaves can reduce survival rates and impact reproductive success[xlii].
Climate change will also influence the dynamics between the butterfly and its natural enemies, such as parasitoids and predators. Changes in temperature and humidity can affect the activity and effectiveness of parasitoids that prey on the larvae of the cabbage white butterfly. Warmer temperatures accelerate the life cycles of these parasitoids and increase their predation rates. Shifts in the distribution and abundance of bird species and other predators that feed on the butterfly greatly influence butterfly populations[xliii].
Parasitoids
For reference, in evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host[xliv]. Parasitoids feed on a living host which they eventually kill, typically before it can produce offspring, whereas conventional parasites usually do not kill their hosts, and predators typically kill their prey immediately.
There are two general categories of parasitoids: endoparasitoids, which hatch within the host from eggs or larvae laid there by an adult female, and then feed and develop inside the host; and ectoparasitoids, which are fastened to the outside of the host and feed through the host skin, sucking out body fluids. Most parasitoids are either wasps and bees (Hymenoptera) or flies (Diptera), although a few species of beetles, twisted wing insects, moths, and other insects have been identified as parasitoids[xlv].
The only way is down
There is no escaping the effects of climate change on almost everything we see and plenty we do not. My walk beside Haweswater reservoir, and a reservoir it is thanks to mankind’s destruction of a once happy village, showed me far more than a peaceful stretch of water. If I had any doubt remaining, Haweswater clearly demonstrated that we have already damaged our planet greatly, an effect that continues and is likely already beyond any hope of repair.
The world has many places like Haweswater and right now the only way is down.
***
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References
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