Week 47
It seems to have been raining non-stop for the past week, in addition to another storm. This time it was Storm Debi, which in Lakeland came with a yellow weather warning. Further south the warning was amber, even red. I am unsure if the Met Office is issuing more warnings, or if storms are now more common as Planet Rot progresses, yet barely a week passes without a warning being issued. They are yellow, amber, or red, with red implying substantial disruption to most things, as well as risk to life[i].
The UK’s storm season runs from early September to late August the following year and works through the alphabet, storm by storm. The storms for the rest of this current season have names waiting in the background already. Next after Debi will be Elin, then Fergus, Gerrit and Henk. No storms are named with their first letters Q, U, X, Y or Z[ii]. This ensures the UK is in line with the US National Hurricane Centre[iii], which does the same. Worryingly, Storm Debi marked the earliest point in a storm season that the letter D has been reached since the Met Office began naming storms in 2015[iv]. The months ahead are thus a worry.
Arguably, the worst storm or natural disaster to ever hit the UK was in 1703. An unexpected storm battered the country for more than a week, killing up to 15000 people. Southern England was worst affected, and the first Eddystone Lighthouse was swept away[v].
During this week’s Storm Debi, I went out on my land. It may only have been a yellow warning, but the rain and wind were fearsome. The few remaining leaves on the beech trees were blown away, the oak leaves just held on, while the conifers swayed vigorously. I was certain at least one tree would fall. Yet thankfully none did. Storm Debi came and went, and my trees survived, although other locations in Lakeland were not so lucky.
One of my dry stone walls has sprung into life far more than I had predicted. It is clear that planting a wall is a good thing. I worry that vegetation should not be growing right now but with warmer times and climate change, anything is possible. There appears to be much point scoring when it comes to the naming of plants. I have long used their common names, but others choose Latin, which comprises two names, or so-called binomial nomenclature[vi]. The first name is the genus to which a plant belongs and the second is the species. For example, a vervain[vii] - I still have plenty – can be Verbena officinalis and is italicised when written. However, there are 150 different species of vervain, each with its own second name while the genus stays the same. Consequently, if I wish to be accurate, I should describe the plant in Latin.
The binomial description is the best way of being precise[viii] and was established by a Swede called Carl Linnaeus[ix]. He was both a biologist and physician, but his heart appeared always to be with botany and his medical practice did not last long. His first edition of Species Plantarum, published in 1753, is the agreed starting point for binomial nomenclature[x]. He did not stop at plants and ended up naming just about everything, including himself. By the time he died in 1778, his name was Carolus a Linné.
The longest binomial description for any plant happens to be Ornithogalum adseptentrionesvergentulum, which is one of the smallest bulb plants in existence, a variety of asparagus, poisonous to humans[xi], and found in South Africa’s Great Karoo Desert[xii].
My dry stone wall is presently stuffed with binomials. There is Armeria maritima - sea thrift to me - that should normally be planted in well-drained soil and full sun[xiii]. I have planted it in a shaded wall, and it looks very happy. Nearby is Umbilicus rupestris or navelwort, penny pies, or wall pennyleaf[xiv], Sempervivum tectorum or common houseleek, devil’s beard, or Jupiter’s eye[xv], Aquilegia vulgaris or columbine, God’s breath, or naked woman’s foot[xvi], and plenty more besides. It is not just my wall. The alder seedling thriving on my land, despite having a difficult period during last summer’s drought and now busily losing its leaves, has a binomial of Alnus glutinosa. I may call it alder, but it is also known as common alder, black alder, European alder, or European black alder[xvii]. Watch out Latin, here I come.
I still have long grass to scythe before the weather becomes too cold but am tempted to leave it as it is. I recall last year, when I scythed the grass in November, I accidentally uncovered plenty of frogs[xviii], toads[xix], and newts[xx]. I am still seeing many of these amphibians on my land and have also identified small mammals taking cover in the long grass. They seem invariably to take shelter on the very edge of paths. If I shorten the grass, to improve the chances of flowers appearing next Spring, I am likely to disturb the habitat of mice[xxi], voles[xxii], and shrews[xxiii], maybe even the nearly extinct dormouse[xxiv]. Only two days ago I saw a single shrew strutting down the corridor of my house, as if it owned the property. It walked right past me and remained unflustered. The animals are out and about, whatever their binomial, so I need to be careful.
Renaturing, which is essentially a progressive approach to conservation, focusses on restoring natural processes, including the reintroduction of native species to their natural habitats. I am doing the best I can with my land. An often overlooked but crucial part of this involves fungi, a diverse group of organisms that play a key role in various ecosystems.
What is a fungus? It is any member of the group of what are called eukaryotic[xxv] organisms that includes yeasts and moulds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. A eukaryote is anything with a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus, and includes all animals and plants, as well as fungi. A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants and bacteria is chitin[xxvi] in their cell walls. Chitin is the most abundant aminopolysaccharide polymer occurring in Nature and is the building material that gives strength to the exoskeletons of crustaceans, insects, and the cell walls of fungi[xxvii]. Fungi, like animals, acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesise and are the principal decomposers in ecological systems.
They have numerous advantages, which include being ecosystem engineers, developing symbiotic relationships, providing biodiversity support, and reducing pollution. As ecosystem engineers, fungi are integral to nutrient cycling within ecosystems. As decomposers, they have the unique ability to break down complex organic matter, such as the lignin[xxviii] and cellulose[xxix] found in dead wood and leaf litter. This decomposition releases vital nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus back into the soil, enhancing its fertility and structure. This nutrient recycling is essential for plant growth and maintains the health of the soil, which is the foundation of any ecosystem. The presence of robust fungal communities is indicative of a healthy ecosystem, so when I see lots of mushrooms on my land - right now there are plenty - I should cheer. Fungi are critical components of ecosystem stability and resilience[xxx],[xxxi].
Many fungi form symbiotic relationships with plants through mycorrhizae[xxxii], thereby enhancing the uptake of nutrients by the plants. Mycorrhizae are mutually beneficial associations between fungi and plant roots. In these relationships, the fungi enhance the plant's ability to absorb water and nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen from the soil. In return, the plant provides the fungi with carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis. This symbiotic relationship is vital for the growth of native vegetation in renatured areas. Mycorrhizal fungi can increase plant tolerance to stresses such as drought and soil salinity, enhance resistance to pathogens, and improve soil structure. This is especially beneficial in areas where the soil is degraded or nutrient-poor[xxxiii].
Fungi are not only important for soil health and plant growth but also play a pivotal role in supporting biodiversity. A diverse fungal community can provide various ecological niches and enhance a wide range of species from the tiny to the very large. Fungi can be a food source, provide a habitat, and even affect the survival and reproduction of other species. For example, certain fungi are critical food sources for invertebrates, which in turn are food for larger animals. The eating of fungi is known as mycophagy[xxxiv]. Some fungi also form mutualistic relationships with insects, such as the well-documented association between certain fungi and ants[xxxv], where ants both cultivate and feed on fungi. In renatured areas such as my land, looking after and encouraging fungi is a good way of improving overall biodiversity[xxxvi].
Some fungi possess the remarkable ability to break down pollutants in the environment, a process known as bioremediation[xxxvii], although for fungi this is sometimes called mycoremediation[xxxviii]. These fungi can degrade a wide range of pollutants, including pesticides, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons, making them valuable in restoring contaminated sites. Mycoremediation works through the production of enzymes and acids that break down complex pollutants into simpler, less harmful compounds. This ability is particularly relevant in the context of industrial pollution, where fungi can be used to clean up contaminated soils and bodies of water. A notable example of fungal bioremediation is the use of white-rot fungi[xxxix] to degrade pollutants. White-rot fungi, known for their ability to decompose lignin in wood, have been shown to effectively break down a wide array of environmental pollutants, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals[xl].
Sadly, there are disadvantages of fungi, too. While they play crucial roles in ecosystems, some species can become invasive and pose significant threats, especially for projects such as mine. Invasive fungal species can outcompete native fungi, alter nutrient cycling and disrupt symbiotic relationships on which native plants and animals depend. This can lead to a decline in native plant species and impact the entire ecosystem. An example of this disruption can be seen with the spread of the pathogenic fungus Chalara fraxinea (now Hymenoscyphus fraxineus), which causes ash dieback[xli]. This disease has led to a significant decline of ash trees[xlii], not only in my own vicinity but also throughout Europe. The introduction of non-native fungi, whether accidental or intentional, can have long-lasting and sometimes irreversible impacts on local ecosystems[xliii].
Fungi can also be pathogenic to both plants and animals, posing challenges with renaturing efforts. Pathogenic fungi can lead to a range of diseases that can hinder conservation by affecting the health of existing flora and fauna. For example, the spread of the Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis[xliv] fungus has been linked to global declines in amphibian populations. This pathogen causes a disease known as chytridiomycosis[xlv], which is fatal to many amphibian species and one of the most significant contributors to the global decline of amphibians[xlvi]. Nearly 41% of amphibians are globally threatened[xlvii]. Part of that, not all, is created by fungi.
Meanwhile, fungi are critical in helping resist climate change, as they can sequester carbon. By decomposing organic matter, fungi convert carbon into forms that can be stored in the soil for long periods. This process is essential in woodland, where large amounts of carbon are stored in wood and leaf litter. Fungi decompose these materials, transferring carbon from the dead vegetation into the soil, effectively sequestering it and reducing the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. This is a crucial role[xlviii]. In addition to carbon sequestration, healthy fungal networks can enhance the resilience of ecosystems to climate change[xlix]. Fungi that form mycorrhizal associations with plants can improve plant stress tolerance to environmental changes, and support plant growth under different climatic conditions.
Conversely, climate change can significantly alter fungal communities, potentially disrupting their ecological roles. Changes in temperature, moisture levels, and CO2 concentrations can affect fungal growth and reproduction, which in turn impacts their abilities to decompose organic matter and form symbiotic relationships with plants. This can lead to decreased soil fertility and a reduction in the capacity of ecosystems to sequester carbon.
I am commonly asked if a particular fungus is edible. I have found this an especially hard question, as well as being worrying should I happen to be wrong. Even experienced individuals can be mistaken. Take the family lunch mystery that gripped Australia in recent times. Five people sat down for a mushroom meal but within a week, three were dead[l].
Likely through lack of knowledge and confidence, and a surplus of caution, I avoid eating the fungi I find on my land, although perhaps I should be braver. Mostly, I will carry a reference book with me to help identify what is what. My favourite book for this is Mushrooms Demystified by David Arora[li]. This is widely regarded as one of the most reliable field guides for mushroom identification. There are also passing mycologists, I have met several, who are trained to identify fungi accurately. I have found their expertise to be invaluable but have still not dared eat one of my own mushrooms.
Certain characteristics can hint at a mushroom's edibility or toxicity, such as colour, shape, smell, the presence of certain features, or the colour of the spores. For example, it is best to avoid mushrooms with white gills, a skirt, or ring on the stem (annulus[lii]) and a bulbous or sack-like base (volva[liii]). The stem of a mushroom is called a stipe[liv]. Such caution may bypass some otherwise good, edible fungi, but it will avoid the deadly members of the Amanita family. It is also best to steer clear of mushrooms with red on the cap or stipe. Poisonous mushrooms can closely resemble edible ones, and subtle differences can easily be overlooked by the untrained eye. For instance, the deadly Amanita phalloides (death cap) can be similar to an edible species known as the paddy straw mushroom[lv]. Amanita phalloides accounts for more than 90% of fungus-related poisoning deaths in Europe[lvi]. The resemblance between toxic and edible mushrooms was well highlighted in a 1995 study, which examined cases of mushroom poisoning and emphasised the dangers of misidentification[lvii]. Be careful with mushrooms, as there are no fool-proof indicators.
Spore printing[lviii] can sometimes be a helpful way of examining the colour of a mushroom's spores, as this colour can be important. Spore printing involves placing the cap of the mushroom on a piece of paper and allowing the spores to fall and create a print. The colour of the spore print, which can range from white to black to various shades of brown and other colours, is a key identification feature for many mushrooms. While the technique may be helpful with identification, it should not be used in isolation[lix]. Do not go anywhere near a mushroom with green spores as that could be the toxic Chlorophyllum molybdites[lx]. There are many edible species of mushroom that have toxic lookalikes[lxi].
As for the difference between a mushroom and a toadstool, a question I am also asked frequently, as best I am aware there is none. Theoretically, the term “mushroom” refers to the fleshy, spore-bearing, fruiting body of a fungus, typically above ground on soil, or on its food source. Mushroom is a word more commonly used to describe those fungi that are edible and not poisonous. Meanwhile a “toadstool” is a term often used to describe mushrooms that are considered poisonous, or otherwise harmful. It is not a scientific term and has a folklore feel about it. Interestingly, there has been a reported official association between toads, frogs and fungi that has been noted globally[lxii].
Maybe toads do sit on mushrooms after all.
***
Acknowledgement
Take it from me - none of this would be possible without the help of RSG Horticulture. Rufus, who runs it, has far more energy than me and is full of ideas and skills. Do contact him through https://www.rsghorticulture.com.
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#StormDebi #UKWeatherWarnings #ClimateChangeImpact #StormNaming #HistoricStormsUK #NatureObservations #DryStoneWallEcology #BinomialNomenclature #CarlLinnaeusLegacy #PlantIdentification #RenaturingConservation #FungiInEcosystems #MycorrhizaeBenefits #BiodiversitySupport #Mycoremediation #InvasiveSpeciesThreat #PathogenicFungi #ClimateResilientEcosystems #FungiAndClimateChange #MushroomSafety #MycologyExpertise #ToadstoolVsMushroom
References
[i] Weather warnings guide. See https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/guides/warnings. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[ii] UK Storm Centre. See https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/warnings-and-advice/uk-storm-centre/index#:~:text=The%20list%20runs%20from%20early,potential%20for%20named%20storms%20increase. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[iii] National Hurricane Center and Central Pacific Hurricane Center. See https://www.nhc.noaa.gov. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[iv] Pidd H. Power cuts and flooding as Storm Debi brings 70mph winds to UK and Ireland. 13 November 2023. See https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/13/power-cuts-and-flooding-as-storm-debi-brings-70mph-winds-to-uk-and-ireland#:~:text=Storm%20Debi%20marks%20the%20earliest,end%20of%20the%20following%20August. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[v] Britain's worst storms: from 1607 to 2023. 26 September 2023. See https://www.countryfile.com/go-outdoors/britains-worst-storms. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[vi] Wikipedia. Binomial nomenclature. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[vii] See week 39 entry.
[viii] Are you embarrassed by your Latin plant names skills? 18 November 2018. See https://www.themiddlesizedgarden.co.uk/are-you-embarrassed-by-your-latin-plant-names-skills/. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[ix] Wikipedia. Carl Linnaeus. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[x] Müller-Wille S. Classification by “natural characters” of Carolus Linnaeus. See https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carolus-Linnaeus/Classification-by-natural-characters. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[xi] ornithogalum adseptentrionesvergentulum. 27 July 2023. See https://ornithogalum.com/ornithogalum-adseptentrionesvergentulum/. Accessed 19 November 2023.
[xii] Longest species name for a plant. See https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/503854-longest-species-name-for-a-plant. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[xiii] Armeria maritima. Typically found growing on cliffs and seashores, but also makes a pretty garden flower. A compact, evergreen perennial, it forms low clumps from which long stems of soft pink blooms emerge in summer. It makes a good rockery plant, which may be why it likes my wall. See https://www.gardenersworld.com/plants/armeria-maritima/#. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[xiv] Navelwort. A distinctive plant that can be found growing from crevices in walls, stony banks and rocky areas, particularly in shady or damp places. It has fleshy, disc-shaped leaves and upright, straw-coloured flower spikes that appear from June to August. See https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/wildflowers/navelwort. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xv] Sempervivum tectorum. See https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/17164/sempervivum-tectorum/details. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xvi] Aquilegia vulgaris. See https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/100859/aquilegia-vulgaris/details. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xvii] Alnus glutinosa. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alnus_glutinosa. Accessed 15 November 2023.
[xviii] See weeks 14, 15, 36 and 44 entries.
[xix] See weeks 14, 15, ans 44 entries.
[xx] See week 1 entry.
[xxi] See weeks 5 & 41 entries.
[xxii] See week 3 entry.
[xxiii] See week 46 entry.
[xxiv] Small mammals. See https://agricology.co.uk/sites/default/files/Mammals.pdf. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xxv] Wikipedia. Eukaryote. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[xxvi] Ahmadjian V. Alexopoulos, Constantine J, Moore D. fungus. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/fungus. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[xxvii] Elieh-Ali-Komi D, Hamblin MR. Chitin and chitosan: production and application of versatile biomedical nanomaterials. International journal of advanced research. 2016 Mar;4(3):411.
[xxviii] Britannica T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, October 5). lignin. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/lignin. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xxix] Bitesize. Cellulose. See https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/znyycdm/articles/z2d2gdm#:~:text=Cellulose%20is%20a%20molecule%2C%20consisting,in%20the%20diet%20as%20fibre. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xxx] DOE explains...the carbon cycle. See https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsthe-carbon-cycle#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20animals%20exhale%20carbon,then%20sinks%20as%20it%20cools. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xxxi] Bebber SW, Darrah PE, Fricker MA, Tlalka M, Boddy L. The role of wood decay fungi in the carbon and nitrogen dynamics of the forest floor. Fungi in biogeochemical cycles. 2006 May 4;24:151.
[xxxii] Wikipedia. Mycorrhiza. A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a green plant and a fungus. The plant makes organic molecules by photosynthesis and supplies them to the fungus in the form of sugars or lipids, while the fungus supplies the plant with water and mineral nutrients, such as phosphorus, taken from the soil. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhiza. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[xxxiii] Smith SE, Read DJ. Mycorrhizal symbiosis. Academic press; 2010 Jul 26.
[xxxiv] Santamaria B, Verbeken A, Haelewaters D. Mycophagy: A Global Review of Interactions between Invertebrates and Fungi. Journal of Fungi. 2023; 9(2):163. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9020163
[xxxv] Wikipedia. Ant-fungus mutualism. This is a symbiosis seen between certain ant and fungalspecies, in which ants actively cultivate fungus much like humans farm crops as a food source. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant–fungus_mutualism#:~:text=The%20ant–fungus%20mutualism%20is,dependence%20on%20fungi%20for%20food. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[xxxvi] Heitman J, Howlett BJ, Crous PW, Stukenbrock EH, James TY, Gow NA. The fungal kingdom. John Wiley & Sons; 2020 Jul 10.
[xxxvii] United States Environmental Protection Agency. Bioremediation. See https://clu-in.org/techfocus/default.focus/sec/Bioremediation/cat/Overview/#:~:text=Bioremediation%20uses%20microorganisms%20to%20degrade,them%20with%20an%20energy%20source. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xxxviii] Mycoremediation: How Fungi Can Repair Our Land. 3 February 2022. See https://usfblogs.usfca.edu/sustainability/2022/02/03/mycoremediation-how-fungi-can-repair-our-land/#:~:text=Mycoremediation%20is%20a%20method%20that,a%20lot%20of%20different%20pollutants. Accessed 18 November 2023
[xxxix] Office of Science. Hungry Fungi: White-Rot Fungi Eat All Components of the Wood They Decompose. 29 April 2021. See https://www.energy.gov/science/ber/articles/hungry-fungi-white-rot-fungi-eat-all-components-wood-they-decompose. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xl] Haritash AK, Kaushik CP. Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a review. Journal of hazardous materials. 2009 Sep 30;169(1-3):1-5.
[xli] Ash dieback/Chalara dieback of ash. See https://www.daera-ni.gov.uk/articles/chalara-dieback-ash. Acvcessed 16 Novemnber 2023.
[xlii] Chalara management plan. 9 April 2019. See https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/chalara-management-plan. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[xliii] Pautasso M, Aas G, Queloz V, Holdenrieder O. European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) dieback–A conservation biology challenge. Biological conservation. 2013 Feb 1;158:37-49.
[xliv] Wikipedia. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidisThis fungus is also known as Bd or the amphibian chytrid fungus, and is a fungus that causes the disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians. Since its discovery in 1998 by Lee Berger, the disease has devastated amphibian populations around the world, See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidis. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[xlv] Cornell Wildlife Health Lab. Chytridiomycosis. See https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/chytridiomycosis. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[xlvi] Fisher MC, Henk DA, Briggs CJ, Brownstein JS, Madoff LC, McCraw SL, Gurr SJ. Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health. Nature. 2012 Apr 12;484(7393):186-94.
[xlvii] Luedtke JA, Chanson J, Neam K, et al. Ongoing declines for the world’s amphibians in the face of emerging threats. Nature 622, 308–314 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06578-4
[xlviii] Clemmensen KE, Bahr A, Ovaskainen O, Dahlberg A, Ekblad A, Wallander H, Stenlid J, Finlay RD, Wardle DA, Lindahl B. Roots and associated fungi drive long-term carbon sequestration in boreal forest. Science. 2013 Mar 29;339(6127):1615-8.
[xlix] Treseder KK, Lennon JT. Fungal traits that drive ecosystem dynamics on land. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2015 Jun;79(2):243-62.
[l] Turnbull T. Mushroom poisoning deaths: Family lunch mystery grips Australia. 8 August 2023. See https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-66391325. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[li] Arora D. Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi. 1986 Oct. Ten Speed Press 2nd edition. 978-0898151695
[lii] Annulus, partial veil See https://www.mushroomthejournal.com/greatlakesdata/Terms/annul216.html. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[liii] Volva. See http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/EssaysOnFungi/Collecting_mushrooms_for_scientific_study/Volva.html. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[liv] How to identify mushrooms and other fungi. 8 September 2023. See https://holdenfg.org/blog/how-to-identify-mushrooms-and-other-fungi/#:~:text=A%20volva%20is%20a%20sack,Amanita%20“egg”%20pictured%20above. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[lv] Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella spp). This is an edible mushroom of the topics and subtropics, and began to be cultivated in China as early as 1822. Around 1932-, the straw mushroom was introduced into the Philippines, Malaysia, and other south-east Asian countries by overseas Chinese. See https://dmrsolan.icar.gov.in/mushroomprofile/Paddy_Straw_Mushroom/paddy_straw_mushroom.html. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[lvi] First Nature. Amanita phalloides. See https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/amanita-phalloides.php. Accessed 16 November 2023.
[lvii] Benjamin DR. Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas. WH Freeman and Co.; 1995. 978-0716726005
[lviii] How to make a spore print. See https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/~sporeprint.php. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[lix] Lincoff G. The complete mushroom hunter: An illustrated guide to finding, harvesting, and enjoying wild mushrooms. Quarry Books; 2010. 978-1631593017
[lx] Wikipedia. Chlorophyllum molybdites. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyllum_molybdites#:~:text=Chlorophyllum%20molybdites%2C%20commonly%20known%20as,vomiter%2C%20is%20a%20widespread%20mushroom. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[lxi] Simpson M. How to identify poisonous mushrooms. 4 May 2023. See https://www.wikihow.com/Identify-Poisonous-Mushrooms. Accessed 18 November 2023.
[lxii] Baker T. The word ‘toadstool’ in Britain. See https://davidmoore.org.uk/Assets/fungi4schools/Reprints/Mycologist_articles/Post-16/Biodiversity/v04p025-029_word_toadstool.pdf. Accessed 18 November 2023.
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