Week 6
Once again this is a long one, so please be prepared, as the topic is serious. I have broken the text halfway, so that you can recharge your batteries and return refreshed. With that, let’s get started...
Part 1
It is about water
Climate change is largely about water, so there are few better places to be in the United Kingdom than its Lake District, where water has long become a way of life. Lakeland’s average annual rainfall is 2000 millimetres (80 inches), although this varies hugely by location. The wettest area is Sprinkling Tarn, near the mountains of Great Gable and Great End. At Sprinkling Tarn there is an annual rainfall of 5000 millimetres (197 inches)[i], while the average annual rainfall for the whole of UK is 800-1400 millimetres[ii]. No wonder the Lakes Distillery near Keswick claims that the water for its whisky comes from Sprinkling Tarn[iii] and that Lakeland is an expert on water. They are right.
Ullswater: a glacial marvel
Right now I have chosen Ullswater, as it is a classic piece of Lakeland. It is one of 16 major lakes in the Lake District and was created about 10,000 years ago. Its ribbon-like shape was caused by three glaciers carving deeply into the underlying rock as the overlying ice sheet melted and retreated. So much of modern Lakeland was created in that way. The huge cavity left behind by the retreating glaciers then filled with meltwater and Ullswater was formed.
It is the second largest and second deepest lake in the Lake District and is about 14 kilometres long and 1 kilometre wide. Near its middle, at the village of Howtown, is a characteristic dog-leg kink. Ullswater’s average depth of water is 25.3 metres, although the maximum depth is 62.4 metres. This deepest point can be found just opposite Aira Point, towards the southern end of Ullswater.
The Ullswater Way: nature and accessibility
Around Ullswater runs the 20-mile Ullswater Way[iv]. Walking enthusiasts will do this in one go. For me, being local, I have done it in smaller portions. The walk is low level and manageable by most[v]. A wheelchair might struggle, as would a buggy, although there is a small piece of Ullswater Way at its northern end by Pooley Bridge, that forms part of the Miles Without Stiles opportunities offered by Lakeland[vi]. The weather is presently freezing cold, as one might expect in February, and recent storms have toppled some trees, blocking part of the route somewhere called Swinburns Park[vii]. Diversions are now in place although I doubt these will be for long.
Mankind’s inertia
The year has already brought in several storms, many more than might be expected, and another storm warning[viii] has just been issued. It says to expect snow from the west in the next few days, as climate change, once again, forces mankind to scurry for cover. Mankind seems better at scurrying than taking action to reduce the problem of the disrupted climate. History books show it has forever been thus. Perhaps this is because the human brain is simply biased to prevent climate action. Certainly, the scientists think so[ix]. In addition, climate change constitutes a potential cultural trauma. The threat of cultural trauma is met with resistance and attempts to restore and maintain the status quo. Social processes that maintain social order and thus avoid cultural trauma create social inertia regarding climate change[x].
Ullswater's ecological tapestry
The basin of Ullswater largely comprises sedimentary mudstone that was formed some 500 million years ago. This sediment has been analysed and has shown that while the general ecology of the lake has remained quite stable, during the last 5000 years its pH has changed from 7.6 to 6.7. Ullswater has become more acid. Pollen analysis of these sediments has also shown that, in the last 2000 years, local deforestation and ploughing of nearby agricultural land have increased the run-off of nutrients such as phosphates into the water, so the nature of the water has changed, as has the wildlife that inhabits it. Yet again, this is a lesson that mankind can do little without affecting the wider ecosystem. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, was Newton’s Third Law[xi]. Or, the Butterfly Effect, well summarised by Alan Turing in 1950[xii], when he said:
"The displacement of a single electron by a billionth of a centimetre at one moment might make the difference between a man being killed by an avalanche a year later, or escaping."
Whatever is done, or even just proposed, it should never be forgotten that any action taken to resolve what is perceived to be a single problem may result in far wider changes taking place. There is no simple solution to climate change, and all problems should be considered in the round.
Ullswater's scientific and ecological status was recognised in 1984 when it was classified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and it has been a National Nature Reserve since 1993. It lies 145 metres above sea level and is orientated roughly south-west to north-east. Its water flows in that direction, too, out into the River Eamont at Pooley Bridge, on to the River Eden, through Penrith and Carlisle, to reach the Solway Firth. The flow rate is slow, 9.3 cubic metres per second, so the bulk of the water (223 million cubic metres, or 90,000 Olympic swimming pools) is turned over less than once each year. Compare that with Windermere, and its speedier flow rate of 14.3 cubic metres per second. There, the water flows in the opposite direction, from north to south[xiii], out into the River Leven, and from there to Morecambe Bay.
The Ullswater Monster
Ullswater’s low flow rate, change of pH and altered nutrients may have encouraged the suggestion that it contains a monster. This was ostensibly confirmed when three geese were seen to be dragged underwater, and to their deaths, in 2022[xiv]. Some believe the monster was a giant catfish,[xv] but have no evidence to support that. I sat for a while at the water’s edge, watching two ducks, male and female, try to get along and wondering if they might be dragged under by some unseen force. The pairing process was underway. Ducks do not form long-term pair bonds, but instead form seasonal bonds (seasonal monogamy) in which new attachments are created each season. Seasonal monogamy occurs in about 49% of all waterfowl species with bonds being maintained only through egg laying. Each winter, the birds must find a new mate for the breeding season[xvi].
Sadly for my camera, happily for the ducks, no hidden creature emerged from the deep and the pairing process continued. I got to my feet to move onwards, as the weather was too cold to remain still for long. Might there be an Ullswater monster? I have no clue. It is a question that remains unanswered.
Norse Settlements
The origin of Ullswater’s name is a topic of heated argument. Any Lakelander I have ever met harbours strong opinions about plenty, including the naming of Ullswater. I opt for it being named after the Nordic chief Ulf, who ruled over the area in bygone days. Ulf’s water...Ullswater...the link is easy for my simple brain. However, there are also possible associations with Ullr, a Norse god associated with skiing[xvii], at a time when Lakeland snow lay and remained for longer, or a Saxon Lord called Ulphus, who had land bordering the lake. I will stick with Ulf, a name that means “wolf” in Old Norse.
There is a strong connection with Norse settlers in Lakeland, although there is a lack of written evidence that might provide detail. It appears that in the early 900s AD peaceful Norse settlers arrived in the Lake District from Ireland and the Isle of Man. They favoured the upland areas, around 300 metres (984 feet) above sea level, which had not previously been colonised. Evidence of this colonisation can be found in place names derived from Norse. For example, the linear settlement of Ulcat Row, barely 2 kilometres north of Ullswater’s mid-portion, is a settlement that extends to 360 metres (1181 feet) above sea level. Its name is said to derive from the Norse for “house where the owls are”. I saw no owls near Ullswater although I am certain they are there. Owls do not migrate in winter, apart from snowy owls that seek out warmer climes when winter comes around.
There is also the word “Herdwick”, the breed of sheep for which Lakeland is famous, as the term may come from the Norse “herd-vic” meaning the “pasture where the sheep are kept”. Genetic evidence suggests that Herdwicks were brought to Lakeland by Norse settlers, as the sheep were ideally suited to upland grazing[xviii].
Tourism and fish
Following the early Norse settlers, more humans then arrived in their large and selfish numbers over the centuries, aided by whatever technology they could muster. The environment slowly began to change, initially manageably then unmanageably, as is the case today. Ullswater has been a major tourist destination since the mid-18th century[xix], and is a good example of human selfishness although thankfully not all humans have been so inclined.
At a time when Ullswater was not seen as protected it was seized upon as a suitable water supply for Manchester, roughly 100 miles away. It took the almost superhuman efforts of one Lord Birkett in 1962, to whom a plaque has been erected on the nearby Birkett Fell, to ensure this proposal was significantly reduced. His eloquent words to the House of Lords are remembered to this day[xx]:
“Thus far and no farther. Go away. Come again another day if you will. But in the meantime, do that which ought to have been done before. Produce the hydrological data on which the House can come to a proper decision. Until that is done, you have no right whatever to invade the sanctity of a National Park”.
Well said. What daft idea will mankind dream up next, as there seems no shortage of stupidity. One thing is certain, the world has insufficient Lord Birketts.
Ullswater has several distinguishing features, including an endemic fish, the schelly(Coregonus stigmaticus)[xxi]. This is the country’s rarest fish, part of the salmon family, and is found in only four lakes worldwide. These are Red Tarn, Haweswater, Brothers Water, and, of course, Ullswater[xxii].
Unlike most other Lake District waters, meres, and lakes, Ullswater has very few pike (Esox spp)[xxiii], if any at all. Perch (Perca spp) seems to be the apex predator. Arctic char(Salvelinus alpinus) also used to be present in Ullswater but that was approximately a century ago. At that time there were few sites in the land where Arctic char could be found in the same location as schelly[xxiv], but Ullswater was one of them. However, the Arctic char vanished from Ullswater before 1940, it is said because of lead pollution from the nearby Greenside Mine[xxv]. Mankind was up to mischief even then.
I wandered lonely as a cloud
It is worth going slowly at various points on the Ullswater Way. That is not difficult for me but can be harder for many others. One of the spots is Glencoyne Bay, just north of Glenridding where, in 1802, William and Dorothy Wordsworth saw a tranche of daffodils swaying in the wind. This led to William Wordsworth’s penning in 1804, and publishing in 1807, of “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”, sometimes just called “Daffodils”[xxvi]. It is the only Wordsworth poem I know:
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
It continues for three more verses.
Ullswater is a popular place, with 309,000 visitors riding its steamers in 2022, although this is a decline from the 501,000 that did the same in 2019[xxvii], before the COVID-19 pandemic. Today’s visitors witness a different Ullswater to that seen by our forefathers and I wonder what the Wordsworths would make of modern Ullswater if they were alive today. I am unsure if William would have written that poem at all.
***
You are now roughly halfway, and I insist you take a rest. A cup of something, a glass of the other, a breath of air, a chat, whatever you decide. Make it a few days if you desire. A break will help you focus as it is your attention that I beg. There is much to read, plenty to learn, and my Lake District has many stories to tell. Please return refreshed, whenever you decide, and then on with the remainder...
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Part 2
The Real Monsters: climate change and pollution
A significant problem with modern discussions about climate change is that debate frequently considers what might happen, not what has happened, or is happening now. Perhaps that is another reason why mankind is so inert when addressing the problem. It is truly remarkable how little is being done when faced with the obvious. The view, “It won’t happen to me” prevails. Then it does and it is too late. Behind climate change lies pollution, in its various forms. There are three basic forms of pollution - air pollution, water pollution and land pollution[xxviii]. Within each of these categories lie other categories, too. Ullswater shows them all, albeit to varying degrees, although much of it is unseen.
Pollution was highlighted when I stopped for a brief rest on the shores of Ullswater’s Mossdale Bay. At the time I was pondering on life and its various issues, as walking invariably clears my mind. But then I made a double take. Surely not? Hell! Yet there it was - plastic squeezed by an unseen hand into a cranny between two rocks. I have no idea why that spot had been chosen but it looked inappropriate, untidy, inconsiderate, and was clear evidence of littering. It brought plastic stage centre for me.
The problem of plastics
Plastics are high on the pollutant list and are an increasing problem[xxix]. The conveniences plastics offer, and all their advantages, have led to a throw-away culture that has not been to mankind’s benefit. Single-use plastics now account for 40% of the plastic produced every year. Many of these products have a user’s lifespan of mere minutes yet can persist in the environment for hundreds of years[xxx]. Plastics degrade after disposal by photodegradation, where ultraviolet light from the sun breaks the plastic into smaller and smaller particles[xxxi]. This is slow at best and extremely difficult to achieve at all in a landfill site, so a plastic water bottle can take 450 years to disappear[xxxii].
Half of all plastics ever manufactured have been made in the last 15 years, with production increasing from 2.3 million tons in 1950, to 448 million tons in 2015, to a predicted doubling of this by 2050. Every year, approximately 8 million tons of plastic waste escapes into the oceans from coastal nations. These are terrible figures.
Plastics enter river and lake systems, including Ullswater, from multiple sources including industrial effluent, storm water drains, littering, and domestic wastewater. Around 90% of plastic contamination in the oceans is thought to originate from land, with flood events rapidly transferring plastic pollution from inland waterbodies and watercourses to the oceans. Both Pooley Bridge at the northern end of Ullswater, and Glenridding at the southern end, are flood-risk areas[xxxiii]. Although Ullswater is landlocked, what happens there has a direct connection to the Solway Firth and the oceans beyond[xxxiv]. One stretch of water can easily pollute the other and will do so. Plastic can travel huge distances. One study from the UK’s Cornwall showed a maximum distance of 2845 kilometres in 94 days[xxxv]. What poisons Ullswater may not stay there.
Climate change and plastic pollution are closely interlinked, as the production, conversion, and waste management of plastics generate about 4% of total greenhouse gas emissions. Most (93%) plastics are currently produced with fossil fuels. Only 6% of plastic is made from recycled plastics and a tiny percentage are biobased plastics. If biobased plastics were used instead of fossil-based plastic production, this would clearly reduce emissions but would require additional land. This would lead to further deforestation, which is the last thing the Earth now needs.
There is little good to say about plastic, especially as the problem is deteriorating and not improving. Should you be in a supermarket shortly, and need to use a plastic bag, do remember that each year the world uses over 500 billion plastic bags, which is 150 for every person on Earth[xxxvi].
Road runoff
For Ullswater, there is also the effect of the road that runs close to the north-western shores of the lake, and right along its length. This is the A592. Pollution runoff from roads is seldom discussed, yet oil, chemicals, and wear from tyres end up in drains and from there into nearby waterways[xxxvii]. The current trend to drive electric vehicles, for example, shows that the extra weight of an electric vehicle leads to the shedding of an additional 20% of debris from its tyres than might be expected from a petrol-powered vehicle[xxxviii]. This is one of many emerging secrets of electric cars and manifestly a threat to Ullswater. The regular spreading in winter of grit and salt onto the A592 has also increased the run-off of salt into Ullswater[xxxix], and is a threat to the lake’s wildlife.
The A592 census point at Pooley Bridge, the town at the northern end of Ullswater, sees approximately 3000 motor vehicles every day[xl]. Although this may seem plenty of vehicles, it is quite small. For comparison the traffic density on the nearby M6 motorway, less than 6.5 kilometres away, is 45,000 vehicles daily[xli]. There is much traffic around Ullswater and in the surrounding areas. The Ullswater Way, especially its north-western aspect, was not as quiet as I would have wished.
Pooley Bridge and concrete
At Ullswater’s northern end, Pooley Bridge shocked me, even if it was a scenic beauty. With storm warnings in place, and high winds and snowstorms around the corner, I stood watching the smooth water of the River Eamont flow gently northwards, towards Penrith. Arching over me was the UK’s first stainless steel road bridge, the result of a collapsed central pillar of the original stone road bridge, that had crumbled during Storm Desmond in December 2015. The damage required the bridge to be formally replaced.
In total, for the new road bridge, around 80 tonnes of stainless steel were required, 2000 tonnes of concrete laid, and 650 square metres of locally sourced stone used. Over 250 people were involved in the project, working some 10,000 hours to construct the bridge, at a cost of £7 million. Remarkably, the lifting operation to position the bridge took just three hours[xlii]. The bridge was certainly an engineering marvel, the use of stainless steel greatly reducing the amount of concrete that was needed. However, 2000 tonnes were still needed, which has an unavoidable environmental effect.
Concrete is the most widely used manufactured material on the planet. Even construction professionals sometimes incorrectly use the terms “concrete” and “cement” interchangeably. Cement is an ingredient of concrete. It is the fine powder that, when mixed with water, sand, and gravel or crushed stone, forms the hard mass known as concrete[xliii]. Cement is the key ingredient that makes concrete such a useful building material, and over 4 billion tonnes of it is used globally each year. Cement production alone generates around 2.5 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, which is about 8% of the global total[xliv].
The point may already have been passed where concrete outweighs the combined carbon mass of every tree, bush, and shrub on the planet. The built environment has thus already outgrown the natural one, although it does not actually grow. Instead, it hardens, then slowly degrades. After water, concrete is the most widely used substance on Earth. If the cement industry were a country, it would be the third largest CO2 emitter in the world[xlv]. The new bridge at Pooley Bridge has tried hard to address these issues but is still an environmental problem.
The use of both stainless steel and concrete in the new Pooley Bridge begs a question about the difference between steel and concrete when it comes to carbon emissions. Research has shown that the CO2 (equivalents) emission of reinforced concrete is 36% higher than the emission in a similar steel structure, although the total material cost of the steel structure is around 65% higher than the structure made from reinforced concrete [xlvi]. Not everyone would agree with this, as some would say that reinforced concrete is better for the environment than steel[xlvii]. It seems that both are a problem, and it is simply a matter of degree.
Sewage and storm overflows
While pondering steel and concrete under the arch of the new Pooley Bridge, I am uncertain why I looked towards the far bank of the River Eamont. Perhaps it was the noise, or shifty behaviour of a man who was standing on the far bank, watching, and filming the bubbling water by his wellington-booted feet. Unwittingly I had appeared in Pooley Bridge just when a storm sewage overflow was being opened and there was an outflow underway. I imagine this was in preparation for the snow and heavy rain that had been forecast. It is one thing to talk in disapproving terms about sewage outflows, it is another seeing one taking place. It is horrid.
Across much of the UK, the sewerage network is a combined system. This means that sewage and surface water flow into the same pipe system before travelling to a treatment plant. When the sewerage system becomes overloaded, heavy rainfall is a good example, water companies are permitted to use sewage overflows to discharge untreated human sewage and wastewater into the environment. Sewage overflows are meant to act as an emergency relief valve for the sewerage system to stop sewage backing up into homes. Legislation states these overflows should only be used in exceptional circumstances. Despite this, in 2021 alone, water companies discharged sewage into rivers and seas over 370,000 times. That was an astonishing 2.7 million hours of sewage swamping the nation’s beaches and riverbanks[xlviii].
Compared with many, Pooley Bridge is not bad, as the storm overflow at the bridge only discharged twice in 2022, for a total of 2.27 hours[xlix]. This is far below discharges charted in certain other parts of the land. For example, the overflow near Bowness-on-Windermere, 32 kilometres (20 miles) to the south, spilled 17 times in 2022 for a total of 52.29 hours, and directly into Windermere itself. More frightening is the overall figure for Windermere, when all sources of discharge into the lake are considered, and there are plenty. According to Environment Agency data, raw sewage was dumped into Windermere for 5904 hours over a period of 246 days in 2022. It appears that up to 70 days of these releases might have been illegal[l]. Good luck, wild swimmers. Yuk!
Not only are there problems created by the discharge of sewage into the nation’s waterways, and that includes Pooley Bridge, but wastewater treatment plants can also be troublesome, as so many are powered by fossil fuels. One research study has shown that the carbon emissions from wastewaters can increase global greenhouse gas emissions by 12 to 23%[li]. The balance between the proper treatment of wastewater and the CO2 emissions that creates is difficult to strike[lii].
As climate change proceeds, and storms become more frequent, so there is an increasing need to discharge sewage into rivers. By 2050, the English sewerage system will face a 55% increase in water flowing through its network because of increased urbanisation and the removal of natural surfaces, which normally help water drain away. Sewage also contributes to thermal pollution. Many places dispose of sewage by releasing treated (and untreated) gubbins into waterways. However, its temperature is often higher than nearby waterways, which can cause problems[liii] for the aquatic ecosystem that the sewage enters.
In addition, when sewage enters waterways, it introduces large amounts of nutrients into the water, with eutrophication being the result. The introduction of nitrogen and phosphorus are especially problematic as they stimulate the growth of plants and algae. Algae can be harmful for the ecosystem. For example, algal blooms block out light that other plants in the waterbody require for photosynthesis. This causes plants in the water to die, which leads to a build-up of bacteria that thrive on dead organic material. This build-up reduces the levels of oxygen, which in turn kills fish and other aquatic organisms.
Some algal blooms, for example the blue-green form that is an increasing problem in the Lake District, can even produce toxins that are not only harmful to fish and insects, but also a danger to dogs and humans[liv]. There are blue-green algae in Ullswater. From these findings it is obvious. Climate change is bad for sewage, sewage is bad for climate, and there is plenty more work to be done.
Conclusion
Ullswater, despite its beauty, gives a clear snapshot of the problems created by mankind. There are too many people on a too small Earth. For a drastic depopulation to be avoided, the time for mankind to act is now, perhaps even yesterday.
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Hashtags
#LakeDistrict #Ullswater #ClimateChangeUK #SustainableTravel #NatureConservation #WaterwaysProtection #EcoTourismUK #GlacialLakes #BritishWildlife #HikingUK #PollutionAwareness #GreenUK #StormsAndClimate #HistoricalLakeland #NorseHeritage #PlasticPollution #RenewableEnergyUK #SewageOverflow #EnvironmentalAction #LakeDistrictWalks
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References
[i] Adventure Smart. Watch the Weather. See https://www.adventuresmart.uk/lake-district-cumbria/#:~:text=Average%20annual%20rainfall%20is%20reported,mm%20of%20rainfall%20every%20year. Accessed 31 January 2024.
[ii] Climate Change Knowledge Portal. See https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/united-kingdom/climate-data-historical#:~:text=Average%20annual%20precipitation%20in%20the,800%20mm%20to%201%2C400%20mm. Accessed 31 January 2024.
[iii] Visit Cumbria. The Lakes Distillery – Bassenthwaite Lake. See https://www.visitcumbria.com/cm/the-lakes-distillery/#?utm_content=cmp-true. Accessed 31 January 2024.
[iv] The Ullswater Way. See https://www.ullswater.org/the-ullswater-way/. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[v] Lake District National Park. Ullswater Way. See https://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/visiting/places-to-go/explore-ullswater-glenridding-and-pooley-bridge/ullswater-way. Accessed 31 January 2024.
[vi] Lake District National Park. Miles Without Stiles 1: Pooley Bridge to Gale Bay
See https://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/visiting/things-to-do/walking/mileswithoutstiles/mws1. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[vii] Lake District National Park. Ullswater Way. See https://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/visiting/places-to-go/explore-ullswater-glenridding-and-pooley-bridge/ullswater-way. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[viii] UK weather warnings. See https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/warnings-and-advice/uk-warnings#?date=2024-02-09. Accessed 9 February 2024.
[ix] King MW. How brain biases prevent climate action. 8 March 2019. See https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190304-human-evolution-means-we-can-tackle-climate-change. Accessed 9 February 2024.
[x] Brulle RJ, Norgaard KM. Avoiding cultural trauma: Climate change and social inertia. Environmental Politics. 2019 Jan 9.
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[xii] Turing AM. I.—Computing Machinery and Intelligence, Mind, Volume LIX, Issue 236, October 1950, Pages 433–460, https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433
[xiii] National River Flow Archive. See https://nrfa.ceh.ac.uk/data/station/meanflow/73010. Accessed 4 February 2024.
[xiv] Smedley S, Gleadow E. Mystery sea creature 'spotted dragging geese to their deaths' in the Lake District. 28 June 2022. See https://www.dailystar.co.uk/news/weird-news/mystery-sea-creature-spotted-dragging-27343601. Accessed 31 January 2024.
[xv] Wade J. Could “Ullswater Killer” be a monster catfish? 25 July 2022. See https://www.anglingtimes.co.uk/news/stories/could-ullswater-killer-be-a-monster-catfish/. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xvi] Waterfowl mating systems. See https://www.ducks.org/conservation/waterfowl-research-science/waterfowl-mating-systems#:~:text=Ducks%20do%20not%20form%20long,percent%20of%20all%20waterfowl%20species. Accessed 9 February 2024.
[xvii] Wikipedia. Ullr. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullr. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xviii] Bray E. Kingdoms and Norse settlers AD410-1092. See https://www.ullswaterheritage.org/heritage-knowledge-bank/history-contents/history-by-period/kingdoms-and-norse. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xix] Wikipedia. Ullswater. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullswater. Accessed 31 January 2024.
[xx] How Ullswater was saved: commemorating Lord Birkett and the Ullswater Preservation Society.
See https://1863ullswater.co.uk/ullswater-saved-commemorating-lord-birkett-ullswater-preservation-society/. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxi] Wikipedia. Schelly. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schelly. Accessed 9 February 2024.
[xxii] Only Natural. See https://jiainmac.wordpress.com/2016/07/23/britains-rarest-fish/. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxiii] Ullswater. See https://www.fishinglakedistrict.co.uk/2020/08/05/ullswater/#:~:text=There%20are%20reliable%20reports%20of,gain%20a%20foot%20hold%20here. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxiv] Maitland PS, Winfield IJ, McCarthy ID, Igoe F. The status of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus in Britain and Ireland. Ecology of Freshwater Fish. 2007 Mar;16(1):6-19.
[xxv] Clarke T. Ullswater – The Lake. See https://www.ullswaterheritage.org/heritage-knowledge-bank/landscape-contents/water/ullswater-the-lake. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxvi] Poetry Foundation. See https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45521/i-wandered-lonely-as-a-cloud. 3 February 2024.
[xxvii] Statista. Most visited paid attractions in North West England from 2019 to 2022. See https://www.statista.com/statistics/425251/most-visited-paid-attractions-in-north-west-england/. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxviii] Pollution. See https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/pollution/#. Accessed 9 February 2024.
[xxix] Dunn C. Microplastic pollution widespread in British lakes and rivers - new study.
See https://www.bangor.ac.uk/news/archive/microplastic-pollution-widespread-in-british-lakes-and-rivers-new-study-40043. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxx] Parker L. The world's plastic pollution crisis explained. 7 June 2019. See https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/plastic-pollution. Accessed 4 February 2024.
[xxxi] Yousif E, Haddad R. Photodegradation and photostabilization of polymers, especially polystyrene. SpringerPlus. 2013 Dec;2(1):1-32.
[xxxii] How does plastic degradation affect the environment? See https://www.savemoneycutcarbon.com/learn-save/how-long-does-it-take-for-plastic-to-biodegrade/#:~:text=That%20is%20not%20to%20say,years%20to%20decompose%20in%20landfill. Accessed 9 February 2024.
[xxxiii] Learn more about flood risk. See https://check-long-term-flood-risk.service.gov.uk/map. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxxiv] Action on Plastic. Plastics in Ullswater. See https://www.penrithact.org.uk/plastics/ullswater. Accessed 3 February 2024.
[xxxv] Duncan EM, Davies A, Brooks A, Chowdhury GW, Godley BJ, Jambeck J, Maddalene T, Napper I, Nelms SE, Rackstraw C, Koldewey H. Message in a bottle: Open source technology to track the movement of plastic pollution. PLoS One. 2020 Dec 2;15(12):e0242459.
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[xxxvii] Fisher J. Toxic run-off from roads not monitored, BBC finds. See https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-68130715. Accessed 3 February 2024.
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